hernan cortes voyage to mexico

Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who explored Central America, overthrew Montezuma and his vast Aztec empire and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.

(1485-1547)

Who Was Hernán Cortés?

He first set sail to the New World at the age of 19. Cortés later joined an expedition to Cuba. In 1518, he set off to explore Mexico.

Cortés strategically aligned some Indigenous peoples against others and eventually overthrew the vast and powerful Aztec empire. As a reward, King Charles I appointed him governor of New Spain in 1522.

Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, was born around 1485 in Medellín, Spain. He came from a lesser noble family in Spain. Some reports indicate that he studied at the University of Salamanca for a time.

In 1504, Cortés left Spain to seek his fortune in New World. He traveled to the island of Santo Domingo, or Hispaniola. Settling in the new town of Azúa, Cortés served as a notary for several years.

He joined an expedition of Cuba led by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar in 1511. There, Cortés worked in the civil government and served as the mayor of Santiago for a time.

Aztec Empire

In 1518, Cortés was to command his own expedition to Mexico, but Velázquez canceled it. In a mutinous act of defiance, Cortés ignored the order, setting sail for Mexico with more than 500 men and 11 ships that year.

In February 1519, the expedition reached the Mexican coast. By some accounts, Cortés then had all his ships destroyed except one, which he sent back to Spain. This brazen decision eliminated the possibility of any retreat.

Cortés became allies with some of the Indigenous peoples he encountered, but with others, he used deadly force to conquer Mexico. He fought Tlaxacan and Cholula warriors and then set his sights on taking over the Aztec empire.

He marched to Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital and home to ruler Montezuma II . After being invited into the royal palace, Cortés took Montezuma hostage and his soldiers plundered the city.

But shortly thereafter, Cortés hurriedly left the city after learning that Spanish troops were coming to arrest him for disobeying orders from Velázquez.

After fending off the Spanish forces, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán to find a rebellion in progress, during which Montezuma was killed. The Aztecs eventually drove the Spanish from the city, but Cortés returned again to defeat them and take the city in 1521, effectively ending the Aztec empire.

In their bloody battles for domination over the Aztecs, Cortés and his men are estimated to have killed as many as 100,000 Indigenous peoples. King Charles I of Spain (also known as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) appointed him the governor of New Spain in 1522.

Later Years and Death

Despite his decisive victory over the Aztecs, Cortés faced numerous challenges to his authority and position, both from Spain and his rivals in the New World. He traveled to Honduras in 1524 to stop a rebellion against him in the area.

In 1536, Cortés led an expedition to the northwestern part of Mexico, in the process exploring Baja California and Mexico's Pacific coast. This was to be his last major expedition.

Back in the capital city, Cortés found himself unceremoniously removed from power. He traveled to Spain to plead his case to the king, but he was not reappointed to his governorship.

In 1541, Cortés retired to Spain. He spent much of his later years desperately seeking recognition for his achievements and support from the Spanish royal court. Wealthy but embittered from his lack of support and acclaim, Cortés died in Spain in 1547.

QUICK FACTS

• Name: Hernán Cortés
• Birth Year: 1485
• Birth City: Medellín
• Birth Country: Spain
• Gender: Male
• Best Known For: Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who explored Central America, overthrew Montezuma and his vast Aztec empire and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.
• Politics and Government
• War and Militaries
• Nacionalities
• Death Year: 1547
• Death date: December 2, 1547
• Death City: Castilleja de la Cuesta
• Death Country: Spain

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How Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire

By: Karen Juanita Carrillo

Updated: June 26, 2023 | Original: May 20, 2021

The Aztec Empire , Mesoamerica’s dominant power in the 15th and early 16th centuries controlled a capital city that was one of the largest in the world. Itzcoatl, named leader of the Aztec/Mexica people in 1427, negotiated what has become known as the Triple Alliance —a powerful political union of the city-states of Mexico-Tenochtitlán, Tetzcoco and Tlacopán. As that alliance strengthened between 1428 and 1430 it reinforced the leadership of the Aztecs, making them the dominant Nahua group in a landmass that covered central Mexico and extended as far as modern-day Guatemala.

And yet Tenochtitlán fell into decline after the siege and destruction of the city by the Spanish in 1521—less than two years after Hernándo Cortés and Spanish conquistadors first set foot in the Aztec capital on November 8, 1519. How did Cortés manage to overthrow the seat of the Aztec Empire?

Tenochtitlán: A Dominant Imperial City 

When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Aztec imperial city in 1519, Mexico-Tenochtitlán was led by Moctezuma II. The city had prospered and was estimated to host a population of between 200,000 and 300,000 residents.

At first , the conquistadors described Tenochtitlán as the greatest city they had ever seen. It was situated on a human-made island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. From its central location, Tenochtitlán served as a hub for Aztec trade and politics. It featured gardens, palaces, temples and raised roads with bridges that connected the city to the mainland.

Other city-states were forced to pay periodic tributes to Tenochtitlán’s public markets and to its religious center, the Templo Mayor or “Great Temple.” Religious tributes sometimes took the form of human sacrifices . While the Aztec’s monetary and religious demands empowered the empire, it also fostered resentment among surrounding city-states. 

Hernándo Cortés Makes Allies with Local Tribes

Hernándo Cortés formed part of Spain’s initial colonization efforts in the Americas. While stationed in Cuba, he convinced Cuban Governor Diego Velázquez to allow him to lead an expedition to Mexico, but Velázquez then canceled his mission. Eager to appropriate new land for the Spanish crown, convert Indigenous people to Christianity and plunder the region for gold and riches, Cortés organized his own rogue crew of 100 sailors, 11 ships, 508 soldiers and 16 horses. He set sail from Cuba on the morning of February 18, 1519, to begin an unauthorized expedition to Mesoamerica.

Arriving on the Yucatán coast, Cortés encountered Indigenous people who told him about other Europeans who had been shipwrecked and captured by local Mayans. Cortes freed Jerónimo de Aguilar , a Franciscan friar, from the Mayans and made Aguilar part of his crew. Aguilar turned out to be an invaluable asset to Cortes due to his ability to speak Chontal, the local Mayan language. With Aguilar at his side, Cortés and his conquistadors continued traveling the region, battling Indigenous groups along the way.

Cortés and his men then acquired another asset when an Aztec chief gifted them some 20 enslaved young Mayan women, including Malinalli, a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. Malinalli became baptized with the Christian name Marina and was later known as La Malinche. La Malinche spoke both the Aztec language of Náhuatl and Mayan Chontal and worked alongside the Spanish invaders, providing the conquistadors with the ability to communicate with any Indigenous groups they encountered.

With La Malinche and Aguilar in tow, the conquistadors made their way to the island city of Tenochtitlán where they were initially welcomed by Emperor Moctezuma II. When Cortés became concerned that Moctezuma's people would turn against his men, he placed Moctezuma under house arrest and Cortés attempted to rule through the detained Moctezuma.

Soon Cortés received word that the Cuban governor had sent a Spanish force to arrest Cortés for insubordination. Leaving his top lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado in charge of Tenochtitlán, Cortés took men to attack the Spanish forces at the coast. Cortes's men defeated the troops and took the surviving Spanish soldiers back with him as reinforcements to Tenochtitlán. In Cortés' absence, Alvarado had hundreds of Aztec nobles killed during a ceremonial feast, leading to further unrest among the Aztec people. 

Tenochtitlán residents demanded the Spanish be removed from the city. When the detained Moctezuma could no longer control Tenochtitlán’s residents, the Spaniards either allowed him to die during a skirmish in 1520 or killed him—depending on varying accounts .

Driven from the capital, the Spanish later circled back with a small fleet of ships. Working in alliance with some 200,000 Indigenous warriors from city-states, particularly the Tlaxcala and Cempoala (groups who had resented the Aztec/Mexicas and wanted to see them vanquished), the Spanish conquistadors held Tenochtitlán under siege from May 22 through August 13, 1521—a total of 93 days.

Disease Further Weakens the Aztec

With Tenochtitlán encircled, the conquistadors relied on their Indigenous allies for key logistical support and launched attacks from local Indigenous encampments. Meanwhile, another factor began to take its toll. Unbeknownst to the Spanish, some among their ranks had been infected with smallpox when they had departed Europe. Once these men arrived in the Americas, the virus began to spread—both among their indigenous allies and the Aztecs. (Some research has suggested that salmonella , not smallpox, had weakened the Aztecs.)

The first known case reportedly emerged in Cempoala—one of the city-states that had allied with the Spanish—when an enslaved African came down with the disease. The virus then spread. As the Spaniards and their allies later attacked Tenochtitlán, even when they lost battles, the smallpox virus infected the Aztecs. Aztec troops, members of the noble class, farmers and artisans all fell victim to the disease. 

While many Spaniards had acquired immunity to the disease, the virus was new in the Americas and few Indigenous understood it. The bodies of smallpox victims piled up in the streets of Tenochtitlán and, with the city under siege, there were few available ways to dispose of the bodies.

Spaniards and their allies were taken in as prisoners (the Aztecs tended to hold captured prisoners for sacrifice to the gods, rather than kill them in battle) and traces of the virus were left on the clothes, hair and on dead bodies of those who had had the disease. As Tenochtitlán residents contracted smallpox they had no place to turn for help. Aztec priests and medicinal practitioners knew of no remedy and Tenochtitlán residents had little immunity.

The Spanish Wielded Better Weaponry

The conquistadors arrived in Mesoamerica with steel swords, muskets, cannons, pikes, crossbows, dogs and horses. None of these assets had yet been used in battle in the Americas. The Aztecs fought the Spanish with wooden broadswords, clubs and spears tipped with obsidian blades. But their weapons proved ineffective against the conquistadors’ metal armor and shields.

When the Spanish arrived in the Americas they came from a war-oriented culture that had seen battle against other European nations for dominance and against North Africans for sovereignty. The conquistadors arrived in Mesoamerica with better guns and had been trained in tactical strategies. They deployed a cavalry that could chase down retreating warriors, dogs trained to track down and encircle enemies and horses capable of trampling adversaries.

Up against large armies of Spanish and Indigenous forces, surrounded and cut off from the mainland, and with a population succumbing to an unknown, devastating virus, the Aztec Empire was unable to fight off the invading Spanish conquistadors. The Aztecs, including members of the Aztec royal family—then were forced to adjust to life under Spanish rule.  

"Cada Uno En Su Bolsa Llevar Lo Que Cien Indios No Llevarían: Mexica Resistance and the Shape of Currency in New Spain, 1542-1552.”  by Allison Caplan, American Journal of Numismatics (1989-), vol. 25, 2013, pp. 333–356. JSTOR .

“Jeronimo de Aguilar,”  American Historical Association . 

“Aztec Warfare Imperial Expansion and Political Control,” by Ross Hassig, University of Oklahoma Pres s, 1988, p. 244. 

“Searching for the Secrets of Nature The Life and Works of Dr. Francisco Hernández,” by Dora B. Weiner, Stanford University Press , 2000, p. 86.

“Viruses, Plagues, and History Past, Present, and Future,” by Michael B. Oldstone, Oxford University Press , 2020, p. 46.

“So Why Were the Aztecs Conquered, and What Were the Wider Implications? Testing Military Superiority as a Cause of Europe's Pre-Industrial Colonial Conquests,” by George Raudzens. War in History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1995, pp. 87–104. JSTOR . Accessed May 18, 2021.

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Guns, germs, and horses brought Cortés victory over the mighty Aztec empire

The Aztec outnumbered the Spanish, but that didn't stop Hernán Cortés from seizing Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, in 1521.

After the expedition led by Vasco Núñez de Balboa who crossed Central America to reach the Pacific in 1513, Europeans began to see the full economic potential of this "New World." At first, colonization by the burgeoning new world power, Spain, was centered on the islands of the Caribbean, with little contact with the complex, indigenous civilizations on the mainland.

It was not long, however, before the lure of wealth spurred Spain’s adventurers beyond exploration and into a phase of conquest that would lay the foundations of the modern world. Whole swaths of the Americas rapidly fell to the Spanish crown, a transformation begun by the ruthless conqueror of the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés. (See also: New clues to the lost fleet of Cortés   .)

Cortés beginnings

Like other conquistadores of the early 16th century, Cortés had already gained considerable experience by living in the New World before embarking on his exploits. Born to modest lower nobility in the Spanish city of Medellín in 1485, Cortés stood out at an early age for his intelligence and his restless spirit of adventure inspired by the recent voyages of Christopher Columbus.

In 1504, Cortés left Spain for the island of Hispaniola (today, home to the Dominican Republic and Haiti), where he rose through the ranks of the fledgling colonial administration. In 1511 he joined an expedition to conquer Cuba and was appointed secretary to the island's first colonial governor, Diego Velázquez.

During these years, Cortés developed the skills that would stand him in good stead in his short, turbulent career as a conquistador. He gained valuable insights into the organization of the islands’ indigenous peoples and proved an adept arbiter in the continual squabbles that broke out among the Spaniards, forever vying to enlarge their estates or snag lucrative administrative positions.

In 1518 Velázquez appointed his secretary to lead an expedition to Mexico. Cortés—as Velázquez was to discover to his cost—was set on becoming a leader rather than a loyal follower. He set off for the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in February 1519 with 11 ships, about 100 sailors, 500 soldiers, and 16 horses. Over the following months Cortés would take matters into his own hands, disobey the governor’s orders, and turn what had been intended to be an exploratory mission into a historic military conquest.

Aztec introductions

To the Aztec, 1519 was a year that began with their empire as the uncontested power in the region. Its capital city, Tenochtitlan, ruled 400 to 500 small states with a total population of five to six million. The fortunes of the kingdom of Moctezuma, however, were doomed to a swift and spectacular decline once Cortés and his men disembarked on the Mexican coast. (See also: Rare Aztec Map Reveals a Glimpse of Life in 1500s Mexico. )

Having rapidly imposed control over the indigenous population in the coastal region, Cortés was given 20 slaves by a local chieftain. One of them, a young woman, could speak several local languages and soon learned Spanish too. Her linguistic skills would prove crucial to Cortés’s invasion plans, and she became his interpreter as well as his concubine. She soon came to be known as Malinche, or Doña Marina. The conquistador had a son with her, Martín, who is often regarded as the first ever mestizo—a person of mixed European and American Indian ancestry. (See also: Call the Aztec midwife: Childbirth in the 16th century. )

The news of the foreigners’ arrival soon reached the Aztec emperor, Moctezuma, in Tenochtitlan. To appease the Spaniards, he sent envoys and gifts to Cortés, but he only succeeded in inflaming Cortés’s desires for more Aztec riches. Cortés once described the land near Veracruz, the city he founded on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, as rich as the mythical land where King Solomon obtained his gold. As a mark of his ruthlessness, and to quash any misgivings his crew may have had in disobeying the orders of Governor Velázquez, Cortés ordered the destruction of the fleet he had sailed with from Cuba. There was now no turning back.

Mosaic mask of turquoise and lignite covers a human skull and represents an Aztec god, Tezcatlipoca.

Cortés had a talent for observing and manipulating local political rivalries. On the way to Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards gained the support of the Totonac peoples from the city of Cempoala, who hoped to be freed from the Aztec yoke. Following a military victory over another native people, the Tlaxcaltec, Cortés incorporated more warriors into his army. Knowledge of the divisions among different native peoples, and an unerring ability to exploit them, was central to Cortés’s strategy.

The Aztec had allies too, however, and Cortés was especially belligerent toward them. The holy city of Cholula, which joined with Moctezuma in an attempt to stall the Spaniards, was sacked for two days at Cortés’s command. After a grueling battle lasting more than five hours, as many as 6,000 of its people were killed. Cortés’s forces seemed invincible. In the face of their unstoppable advance, Moctezuma stalled for time, allowing the Spaniards and their allies to enter Tenochtitlan unopposed in November 1519.

Fighting on two fronts

Fear gripped the huge Aztec capital on Cortés’s entry, the chroniclers wrote: Its 250,000 inhabitants put up no resistance to Cortés’s small force of a few hundred men and 1,000 Tlaxcaltec allies. At first Moctezuma formally received Cortés. Seeing the value of the emperor as a captive, Cortés seized him and guaranteed his power over the city.

Establishing a pattern that would recur throughout his career, Cortés soon found himself as much at threat from his own compatriots as from the peoples he was trying to subdue. At the beginning of 1520 he was forced to leave Tenochtitlan to deal with a punitive expedition sent from Cuba by the enraged Diego Velázquez. In his absence, Cortés left Tenochtitlan under the command of Pedro de Alvarado and a garrison of 80 Spaniards.

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The hotheaded Alvarado lacked Cortes’s skill and diplomacy. During Cortes’s absence, Alvarado’s execution of many Aztec chiefs enraged the people. After defeating Velázquez’s forces, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan on June 24, 1520, to find the city in revolt against his proxy. For several days, the Spaniards vainly used Moctezuma in an attempt to calm tempers, but his people pelted the puppet king with stones. Moctezuma died a few days later, but his successors would fare no better than he did.

On June 30, 1520, the Spanish fled the city under fire, suffering hundreds of casualties. Some Spaniards died by drowning in the surrounding marshes, weighed down by the vast amounts of treasure they were trying to carry off. The event would come to be known as the Night of Sorrows.

Technology Triumphs

Although the Aztec had the superior numbers, advanced Spanish weaponry ultimately gave them the upper hand. With firearms and steel blades at his disposal, just one Spaniard might annihilate dozens or even hundreds of opponents: “On a sudden, they speared and thrust people into shreds,” wrote one indigenous chronicler, having witnessed the terrifying impact of European arms. “Others were beheaded in one swipe... Others tried to run in vain from the butchery, their innards falling from them and entangling their very feet.”

A smallpox epidemic prevented the Aztec forces from finishing off Cortés’s defeated and demoralized army. The outbreak weakened the Aztec while giving Cortés time to regroup. Spain would win the Battle of Otumba a few days later. Skillful deployment of cavalry against the elite Aztec jaguar and eagle warriors carried the day for the Europeans and their allies.“Our only security, apart from God,”Cortés wrote,“is our horses.”

Victory allowed the Spaniards to rejoin with their Tlaxcaltec allies and launch the recapture of Tenochtitlan. Waves of attacks were launched on settlements near the Aztec capital. Any resistance was brutally crushed: Many indigenous enemies were captured as slaves and some were even branded following their capture. The sacking also allowed the Spaniards to build up their large personal retinues, taking captives to use as servants and slaves, and kidnapping others for exchanges and ransoms. Growing in number to roughly 3,000 people, this group of captives vastly outnumbered the fighting Spaniards.

Fall of the Aztec

For an assault on a city the size of Tenochtitlan, the number of Spanish troops seemed paltry—just under 1,000 soldiers, including harquebusiers, infantry, and cavalry. However, Cortés knew that his superior weaponry, coupled with the additional 50,000 warriors provided by his indigenous allies, would conquer the city, which was already weakened from starvation and thirst. In May 1521 the Spaniards had cut off the city’s water supply by taking control of the Chapultepec aqueduct.

Even so, the siege of Tenochtitlan was not a given. During fighting in July 1521, the Aztec held strong, even capturing Cortés himself. Wounded in one leg, the Spanish leader was ultimately rescued by his captains. During this setback for the conquistador, the Aztec warriors managed to regain lost ground and rebuild the city’s fortifications, pushing the Spanish onto the defensive for nearly three weeks. Cortés ordered the marshland to be filled with rubble for a final assault. Finally, on August 13, 1521, the city fell.

“Not a single stone remained left to burn and destroy,” one witness wrote. The loss of human life was staggering, both in absolute figures and in its disproportionality. During the siege, around 100 Spaniards lost their lives compared to as many as 100,000 Aztec.

Ladies' Man

According to the chronicler Francisco López de Gómara, Cortés was “very given to women and always gave into temptation.” His biography abounds in romantic entanglements. Throughout his career, Cortés's personal life held a selfish, manipulative streak. In 1514 he married a young Spanish woman named Catalina Suárez, a relative of Governor Diego Velázquez, who soon promoted Cortés after the wedding. But Cortés was not faithful. After the conquest of Mexico, he and Malinche, an Aztec woman who served as his interpreter, had a son together. The marriage to Caralina only ended when she was found dead under mysterious circumstances in 1522. Cortés was suspected of her murder, but nevery charged. Cortés then took as a consort Princess Isabel Moctezuma, the Aztec emperor's daughter. She and Cortés had a daughter, but he later abandoned them. In 1529 Cortés took a Spanish noblewoman, Juana de Zúñiga, as his bride and became a marquis, securing both a high social status and a rather rakish reputation.

The conquest of Tenochtitlan and the subsequent consolidation of Spanish domination over the former Aztec Empire was the first major possession in what became the Spanish Empire. This vast territory would reach its greatest extent in the 18th century, with territory throughout North and South America.

Cortés’s triumph would be short-lived. In just a few years, he would lose many of his lands in the New World. Despite being made a marquis years later, the Conqueror of Mexico did not have a glorious end. In 1547, at the age of 62, he died in a village near Sevilla, Spain, embroiled in lawsuits and his health broken by a series of disastrous expeditions. Decades of rapid expansion in the Americas seemed to have eclipsed his own exploits, and few bells tolled for the man whose ruthlessness and cunning transformed the Americas.

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World History Edu

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Hernán Cortés: History, Life, Accomplishments, & Atrocities Committed

by World History Edu · February 5, 2020

Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés – Life and Accomplishments

Most known for invading Mexico and defeating the Aztec Empire in 1521, Hernán Cortés was a Spanish nobleman and famous explorer who helped expand the Empire of Spain into the New World. Why and how did this conquistador vanquish the Aztecs – one of history’s greatest civilizations? Here is everything that you need to know about the life story and accomplishments of Hernán Cortés.

Hernán Cortés was born in Medellín, Spain, to a family of not so much renowned nobility. Growing up, Cortés was not the strongest of children. Regardless of that he was quite intelligent for his age.

When he was 14, his parents sent him to study Latin at his uncle’s school in Salamanca. Two years into his studies, Cortés abandoned the course and went back home. His decision to abandon school was primarily influenced by news of famed explorer Christopher Columbus’ expeditions into the New World.

Cortés desired nothing than to follow in Columbus’s footstep and become a renowned explorer and Spanish conquistador.

Expeditions to Haiti and Cuba

Cortés’s maiden voyage to the Americas occurred in 1504. He sailed for Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and Dominica Republic). Aged around 19, Cortés arrived in Santo Domingo in 1504. Santo Domingo was the capital of Hispaniola. In the city, he had brief educational spells training to become a lawyer. The late teenager spent the next seven years of his life in Hispaniola. He worked as notary official. Sometimes, he worked on the farm.

In 1511, he signed up to the crew of famous Spanish explorer Diego Velázquez’s expedition to Cuba.  While in Cuba, he served as a treasury assistant to Governor Nicolás de Ovando.

For his contribution to the conquest of Cuba, he was rewarded with large parcels of land and Indian slaves. As the years rolled by, Cortés became an influential person in Cuba. He was particularly close to the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez. He served as Velázquez’s lieutenant.

Expedition to Mexico

In 1518, Cortes was able to convince Velázquez to let him lead an expedition into Mexico. Velázquez accepted his request and gave Cortés his blessings.

Just a few months before Cortes’s expedition, Velázquez had a change of mind. However, the brave and daring Cortés refused to back down. He proceeded and sailed to Mexico with about 11 ships and over 500 men.

Cortés’s mutiny against the governor of Cuba was not uncommon. Early Spanish colonization of the Americas was rife with mutinies and betrayals. For example, the ship that Cortes boarded on his maiden voyage to the Americas had a captain (Alonso Quintero) who mutinied against his superiors.

In 1519, Cortés’s crew of explorers arrived at place called Yucatan, off the Mexican coast. Looking for wealth and glory, Cortés consistently disobeyed Velázquez’s order to come back home. In addition to fame and glory, Cortés had it at the back of his mind to roll out a massive conversion exercise of the natives to Catholicism.

A month after his arrival at Yucatan, Cortés and his men seized the territory in the name of the Spanish Empire. Along the way, he also engaged in a number of battles with native tribes. He and his priests also converted some of the natives into Christianity. Many of those converts were forced into the faith. Also, he encouraged his men to pillage the land and abuse the conquered natives.

Cortés had several illegitimate children with native Indian women. For example, he and La Malinche had a child called Martín (El Mestizo). After a brief period of time, she learned Spanish. For most part of the time, Malinche served as his interpreter. Her usefulness came in the fact that she was reasonably fluent in Aztec and Mayan languages.

Veracruz Settlement

A few months into his stay on the continent, Cortés proceeded west and established a settlement called, Veracruz. He took some of the locales as his allies. In spite of this, it did not stop Cortés from thinking the indigenous people as culturally and religiously inferior to the Spanish. It was not uncommon for Spanish explorers to have this notion about the natives. They found the practice of human sacrifices by the natives particularly abhorrent.

In September, 1519, he briefly clashed with the Otomis and the Tlaxcalans. In the end, some of those indigenous people later allied with Cortés.

After claiming Veracruz for himself, under the Crown’s name, Cortés destroyed his ships. The rationale behind this was to prevent his men from sailing back. His men, therefore, had only one option – march into the heart of the Aztec Empire, Tenochtitlán.

Invasion of the Aztec Empire

Hernando Cortés invades Tenochtitlan, the Capital of the Aztec Empire, in 1521 | Image:  Britannica.com

Cortes first met officials of the Aztec Empire at San Juan de Ulúa in spring 1519. On several occasions he asked for a meeting with Moctezuma II, the ruler ( tiatoani ) of the Aztecs. The Aztecs refused to have any meeting.

In August 1519, Cortes, along with about 600 men, headed for the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. He was also in the company of several hundreds of local tribe men from the Totonacs and the Nahuas.

On his way to Tenochtitlán, he killed several thousands of unarmed noblemen and civilians in Cholula in 1519. His men also burned down a great portion of the city.

In November 1519, Cortes was received by Moctezuma II. The Spanish explorer was given a warm welcome and Cortes entered the city unimpeded. Many say the emperor did this in order to learn the weaknesses of the invading force. However, some historians believe that some Aztecs  regarded Cortés as a messenger of the god Quetzalcoatl – the feathered serpent deity of the Aztecs.

Owing to this fascination, Moctezuma dashed Cortés several ounces of gold and other gifts. Consumed by greed, Cortés decided to take Moctezuma hostage.

Why did Hernán Cortés take Moctezuma hostage?

First of all, some historians say that what prompted Hernán Cortés to hold the ruler of the Aztecs hostage was because Cortés received news that some Aztecs had attacked his men. The second and more likely reason is that Cortés wanted more gold for himself.

In 1520, Governor Veláquez sent a number of ships, which were under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez, to relieve Cortés of his command in Mexico. Narváez sailed to Mexico with about a thousand men. While Cortes held Tenochititlán as a prisoner, Cortés was able to rule the entire Aztec people.

Cortés captures Tenochtitlán

About 200 men to stayed behind stay behind in Tenochtitlán while Cortés marched the rest of his men to face off with Pánfilo de Narváez. Even though Narváez had the numerical advantage, Cortés was still able to hand Narváez a crushing defeat. The remaining men of Narváez surrendered and joined Cortes. Now with a relatively bigger troop numbers, Cortes headed back to Tenochtitlán.

Upon arriving, he found the city in a state of civil rife. His lieutenant that he had left behind did a poor job of keeping the peace and order. There was even a massacre in the Great Temple. Shortly after that the people rebelled. In the heat of this rebellion, Moctezuma was murdered on July 1, 1520. The Aztecs became hostile, forcing Cortés to leave the city. He escaped to Tlaxcala. While retreating, he lost about 870 men, as well as a great deal of his looted gold and other treasures.

Majority of the Aztecs had grown fed up with their rulers. In addition to this, many of them were blighted by smallpox that the Europeans brought along with them. Realizing this, Cortés capitalized on the situation and took control of the city in the name of the Crown. After conquering the city, he renamed it Mexico City. He built Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlán.

From 1521-1524, he served as governor of the city. During his reign, Cortés may have been treated unfairly by the Spanish Empire. His work for the Crown was disregarded. His role in the colonization of the New World was watered down by his critics, including Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Diego Columbus and Francisco Garay. Veláquez, in particular, did not want Cortes to be governor in Mexico. He worked hard to convince King Charles V of Spain. The king then moved Cortés from civilian duties by promoting him to captain-general.

Some say Cortes acted too entitled and may have been a very vain governor. On so many occasions, he disobeyed to orders of the Crown.

King Charles appointed him as governor, captain general and chief justice of the newly conquered territories in the New World. However, the king kept an eye on him by appointing royals to be his assistant. For his conquests in Mexico, the Spanish Crown rewarded Cortes with a coat of arms.

Hernando Cortes crest from Charles V

Honduras Expedition

From 1524 to 1526, Cortes waged war with Cristóbal de Olid – the man who claimed Honduras for himself. Cortes emerged the victor. He pointed finger at Velázquez for his alleged role in Olid’s rebellion. Hence Cortés implored King Charles to arrest Velázquez on the charges of treason.

After his exploits in Honduras, Cortes returned to Mexico only to find out that his power base had been eroded. He quickly headed for Spain to beseech King Charles. However, Charles’ paid little attention to the political situation in the New World. All the king cared about was his quinto, i.e. taxes from the American colonies. Charles did however confer the order of Santiago on Cortés in 1529. Cortés also received the title of Marquis of the Oaxaca (Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ) . On his way back to Mexico, Charles made him in charge of the army in Mexico.

Later Life and Death

Although his governorship position had been taken away from him, Cortés still wielded some amount of power in Mexico. For example he was still able to embark on a number of minor expeditions. In one such expedition, he discovered Baja California Peninsula in 1536.  

With his civil authority stripped from him, Cortés’s influence in the New World waned. In 1541, he went back to Spain to attend to some problems concerning his estates.

Hernán Cortés spent a fortune during his expeditions in the Americas and conquest of Mexico. He tried desperately to get back most of the money he spent from the Spanish Crown, but to no avail.

He spent his later years not as wealthy as he used to be when he was the governor of Mexico. Feeling neglected in Spain, he decided to give Mexico a shot again. However, he was struck down with dysentery in the course of his preparations. On December 2, 1547, the famous Spanish conqueror of Mexico died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville Province. He was 62.

Before he was eventually buried at Hospital de Jesus in Mexico City, his body was moved about eight times.

What was Hernán Cortés’s legacy?

Hernán Cortés (1485 – 1547)

Over the centuries, Hernán Cortés has been scorned by many due to his involvement in years of abuse, killings and devastation amongst the natives in the Americas. In his defense, some historians have stated that his was pretty much the norm during Europeans’ conquest of the Americas. Regardless of this, Cortés cannot be excused from all the atrocities that he committed.

Cortés, like many of his fellow conquistadors, was responsible for infecting (unknowingly) the natives with terrible diseases such as smallpox, which killed millions of indigenous people.

Another brutal act of Cortés came in the form of mass conversion of the indigenous peoples into Christianity. He asked for several friars to be sent from Spain to Mexico. He was particularly cautious in doing so. He made sure that only friars, instead of secular priest or diocesan, performed the conversion.

Did you know : The Gulf of California used to be called the Sea of Cortes ?

From the perspective of the Spanish Empire, he was hailed as a hero. Owing to his efforts, the Crown was able to stretch its tentacles wide and far into the Americas. Those new found territories brought unimaginable riches and prosperity to Spain.

Cortés certainly goes down in history as founder and builder of Mexico City. Although one mention of his name still elicits scorn and disgust from many people in Mexico today, Hernán Cortés undoubtedly occupies a unique and prestigious place in the history of both Mexico and Spain.

Personal life and family

All in all, Hernando Cortés is believed to have fathered quite a lot of children. He married twice. His first wife, Catalina Suárez, died under mysterious circumstances in November 1522. There were rumors floating about that Cortés was responsible. In any case, Catalina bore no children with Hernán Cortés.

In 1529, he got married to Doña Juana de Zúñiga. Unlike his first wife (Catalina), Cortés’s second wife was from a noble family. The couple gave birth to a son called Martín, who would become his heir and successor. Additionally, he had three daughters—Maria, Catalina, and Juana.

With regards to his illegitimate children, it is believed that he had several of them with the natives in Cuba and Mexico. He even worked tirelessly to have the Pope legitimize four of his illegitimate children. In his will, he was also generous to his surviving children, including the illegitimate ones and their mothers.

FACT CHECK : At worldhistoryedu.com, we strive for utmost accuracy and objectivity. But if you come across something that doesn’t look right, don’t hesitate to leave a comment below.

Tags: Aztec Empire Cuba Hernán Cortés Mexico Mexico City Moctezuma Spanish Conquistadors Tenochtitlán The New World Velázquez de Cuéllar

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Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)

Cortés also spelled Cortéz Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec empire (1519�21) and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.

Cortés was the son of Mart�n Cortés de Monroy and of Do�a Catalina Pizarro Altamarino—names of ancient lineage. "They had little wealth, but much honour," according to Cortés's secretary, Francisco López de Gómara, who tells how, at age 14, the young Hernán was sent to study at Salamanca, in west-central Spain, "because he was very intelligent and clever in everything he did." Gómara went on to describe him as ruthless, haughty, mischievous, and quarrelsome, "a source of trouble to his parents." Certainly he was "much given to women," frustrated by provincial life, and excited by stories of the Indies Columbus had just discovered. He set out for the east coast port of Valencia with the idea of serving in the Italian wars, but instead he "wandered idly about for nearly a year." Clearly Spain's southern ports, with ships coming in full of the wealth and colour of the Indies, proved a greater attraction. He finally sailed for the island of Hispaniola (now Santo Domingo) in 1504. He was then 19.

Years in Hispaniola and Cuba

In Hispaniola he became a farmer and notary to a town council; for the first six years or so, he seems to have been content to establish his position. He contracted syphilis and, as a result, missed the ill-fated expeditions of Diego de Nicuesa and Alonso de Ojeda, which sailed for the South American mainland in 1509. By 1511 he had recovered, and he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba. There Velázquez was appointed governor, and Cortés clerk to the treasurer. Cortés received a repartimiento (gift of land and Indian slaves) and the first house in the new capital of Santiago. He was now in a position of some power and the man to whom dissident elements in the colony began to turn for leadership.

Cortés was twice elected alcalde ("mayor") of the town of Santiago and was a man who "in all he did, in his presence, bearing, conversation, manner of eating and of dressing, gave signs of being a great lord." It was therefore to Cortés that Velázquez turned when, after news had come of the progress of Juan de Grijalba's efforts to establish a colony on the mainland, it was decided to send him help. An agreement appointing Cortés captain general of a new expedition was signed in October 1518. Experience of the rough-and-tumble of New World politics advised Cortés to move fast, before Velázquez changed his mind. His sense of the dramatic, his long experience as an administrator, the knowledge gained from so many failed expeditions, above all his ability as a speaker gathered to him six ships and 300 men, all in less than a month. The reaction of Velázquez was predictable; his jealousy aroused, he resolved to place leadership of the expedition in other hands. Cortés, however, put hastily to sea to raise more men and ships in other Cuban ports.

The expedition to Mexico

When Cortés finally sailed for the coast of Yucatán on February 18, 1519, he had 11 ships, 508 soldiers, about 100 sailors, and—most important—16 horses. In March 1519 he landed at Tabasco, where he stayed for a time in order to gain intelligence from the local Indians. He won them over and received presents from them, including 20 women, one of whom, Marina ("Malinche"), became his mistress and interpreter and bore him a son, Mart�n. Cortés sailed to another spot on the southeastern Mexican coast and founded Veracruz, mainly to have himself elected captain general and chief justice by his soldiers as citizens, thus shaking off the authority of Velázquez. On the mainland Cortés did what no other expedition leader had done: he exercised and disciplined his army, welding it into a cohesive force. But the ultimate expression of his determination to deal with disaffection occurred when he burned his ships. By that single action he committed himself and his entire force to survival by conquest.

Cortés then set out for the Mexican interior, relying sometimes on force, sometimes on amity toward the local Indian peoples, but always careful to keep conflict with them to a strict minimum. The key to Cortés's subsequent conquests lay in the political crisis within the Aztec empire; the Aztecs were bitterly resented by many of the subject peoples who had to pay tribute to them. The ability of Cortés as a leader is nowhere more apparent than in his quick grasp of the situation—a grasp that was ultimately to give him more than 200,000 Indian allies. The nation of Tlaxcala, for instance, which was in a state of chronic war with Montezuma, ruler of the Aztec empire of Mexico, resisted Cortés at first but when defeated became his most faithful ally. Rejecting all of Montezuma's threats and blandishments to keep him away from Tenochtitlán or Mexico, the capital (rebuilt as Mexico City after 1521), Cortés entered the city on November 8, 1519, with his small Spanish force and only 1,000 Tlaxcaltecs. Montezuma, believing him to incarnate the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, received him with great honour. Cortés soon decided to seize Montezuma in order to hold the country through its monarch and achieve not only its political conquest but its religious conversion. Marina worked on the complicated, enigmatic mind of Montezuma so subtly that he finally became the voluntary prisoner of her master. With this stroke Cortés became the master of Tenochtitlán.

Spanish politics and envy, however, were to bedevil Cortés throughout his meteoric career. Cortés soon heard of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Pánfilo Narváez, to deprive Cortés of his command at a time (mid-1520) when he was holding the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán by little more than the force of his personality. Leaving a garrison in Tenochtitlán of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs commanded by his most reckless captain, Pedro de Alvarado, Cortés marched against Narváez, defeated him, and enlisted his army in his own forces. On his return, he found the Spanish garrison in Tenochtitlán besieged by the Aztecs after Alvarado had massacred many leading Aztec chiefs during a festival. Hard pressed and lacking food, Cortés decided to leave the city by night. The Spaniards' retreat from the capital was performed, but with a heavy loss in lives and most of the treasure they had accumulated. After six days of retreat Cortés won the battle of Otumba over the Aztecs sent in pursuit (July 7, 1520).

Cortés eventually rejoined his Tlaxcalan allies and reorganized his forces before again marching on Tenochtitlán in December 1520. After subduing the neighbouring territories he laid siege to the city itself, conquering it street by street until its capture was completed on August 13, 1521. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cortés had become the absolute ruler of a huge territory extending from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.

In the meantime, Velázquez was mounting an insidious political attack on Cortés in Spain through Bishop Juan Rodr�guez de Fonseca and the Council of the Indies. Fully conscious of the vulnerability of a successful conqueror whose field of operations was 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from the centre of political power, Cortés countered with lengthy and detailed dispatches—five remarkable letters to the Spanish king Charles V. His acceptance by the Indians and even his popularity as a relatively benign ruler was such that he could have established Mexico as an independent kingdom. Indeed, this is what the Council of the Indies feared. But his upbringing in a feudal world in which the king commanded absolute allegiance was against it.

Later years

In 1524 his restless urge to explore and conquer took him south to the jungles of Honduras. The two arduous years he spent on this disastrous expedition damaged his health and his position. His property was seized by the officials he had left in charge, and reports of the cruelty of their administration and the chaos it created aroused concern in Spain. Cortés's fifth letter to the Spanish king attempts to justify his reckless behaviour and concludes with a bitter attack on "various and powerful rivals and enemies" who have "obscured the eyes of your Majesty." But it was his misfortune that he was not dealing simply with a king of Spain but with an emperor who ruled most of Europe and who had little time for distant colonies, except insofar as they contributed to his treasury. The Spanish bureaucrats sent out a commission of inquiry under Luis Ponce de León, and, when he died almost immediately, Cortés was accused of poisoning him and was forced to retire to his estate.

In 1528 Cortés sailed for Spain to plead his cause in person with the king. He brought with him a great wealth of treasure and a magnificent entourage. He was received by Charles at his court at Toledo, confirmed as captain general (but not as governor), and created marqués del Valle. He also remarried, into a ducal family. He returned to New Spain in 1530 to find the country in a state of anarchy and so many accusations made against him—even that he had murdered his first wife, Catalina, who had died that year—that, after reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, he retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration.

Finally a viceroy was appointed, after which, in 1540, Cortés returned to Spain. By then he had become thoroughly disillusioned, his life made miserable by litigation. All the rest is anticlimax. "I am old, poor and in debt . . . again and again I have begged your Majesty. . . ." In the end he was permitted to return to Mexico, but he died before he had even reached Sevilla (Seville). (Ralph Hammond Innes, Encyclopaedia Britannica Article)

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500 Years Later, The Spanish Conquest Of Mexico Is Still Being Debated

James Fredrick

An artistic rendering of the retreat of Hernán Cortés from Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, in 1520. The Spanish conquistador led an expedition to present-day Mexico, landing in 1519. Although the Spanish forces numbered some 500 men, they managed to capture Aztec Emperor Montezuma II. The city later revolted, forcing Cortés and his men to retreat. Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images hide caption

An artistic rendering of the retreat of Hernán Cortés from Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, in 1520. The Spanish conquistador led an expedition to present-day Mexico, landing in 1519. Although the Spanish forces numbered some 500 men, they managed to capture Aztec Emperor Montezuma II. The city later revolted, forcing Cortés and his men to retreat.

Five-hundred years ago, two men met and changed much of the world forever.

About 500 Spanish conquistadors — ragged from skirmishes, a massacre of an Indigenous village and a hike between massive volcanoes — couldn't believe what they saw: an elegant island city in a land that Europeans didn't know existed until a few years before.

"It was all so wonderful that I do not know how to describe this first glimpse of things never heard of, seen or dreamed of before," wrote conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo.

The date was Nov. 8, 1519. Bernal's leader, Hernán Cortés, walked them down a causeway leading into the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, and was greeted by this land's most powerful man: Emperor Montezuma II. (Montezuma was Mexica, but the term Aztec is often used to denote the triple alliance of civilizations that made up his empire.)

According to Cortés, Montezuma immediately recognized the divine right of the Spanish and the Catholic Church to rule these lands and he surrendered his empire.

But according to historian Matthew Restall, author of the book When Montezuma Met Cortés, this is simply wrong.

"The more that I thought about [the surrender], the more I decided it just didn't quite make sense," he tells NPR. "But then what really got me interested was this question, 'If it's a lie, how has it lasted for 500 years?' "

The meeting of Montezuma and Cortés — in what today is Mexico City — and the true story of the conquest that followed it still weigh heavily in Mexico half a millennium later.

Twice this year, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador has publicly asked the Spanish crown to apologize for atrocities against native people.

"We have not forgotten this issue and continue believing they should offer an apology for the invasion," he said during a news briefing in October. So far, Spain has rejected that request.

The story of the Spanish conquest, as it has been commonly understood for 500 years, goes like this: Montezuma surrendered his empire to Cortés. Cortés and his men entered Tenochtitlán and lived there peacefully for months until rebellious Aztecs attacked them. Montezuma was killed by friendly fire. The surviving conquistadors escaped the city and later returned with Spanish reinforcements. They bravely laid siege to Tenochtitlán for months and finally captured it on Aug. 13, 1521, with the Spanish taking their rightful place as leaders of the land we now know as Mexico. Conquest accomplished.

"History is messy, and this story tidies up all of that mess and turns the messy, unpleasant war that took place 500 years ago into a nice, tidy dramatic narrative that has a hero [Cortés] and antihero [Montezuma] and has some kind of climactic, glorious ending," says Restall.

In When Montezuma Met Cortés , Restall revises this story. He ditches the word "conquest" and instead refers to the time as the Spanish-Aztec war. He says Cortés was a "mediocrity" with little personal impact on the unfolding of events and refocuses on complex territorial battles between the Aztecs and their rivals. The Tlaxcallan Empire, which allied with the Spanish, was the driving force, outnumbering conquistadors 50-to-1 during the war with the Aztecs. Smallpox and a betrayal from an Aztec ally dealt the final blow. The wondrous island city fell, but it would take years for the Spanish to establish control in New Spain.

The messy history of the Spanish and Aztecs is still strikingly visible in the center of Mexico City. Right next to the imposing Metropolitan Cathedral (a centuries-long expansion of the first Spanish church built here, in the 1520s) sit the remains of the Aztec Templo Mayor, or Great Temple, buried beneath the city surface.

Archaeologists have made key discoveries about the Aztecs at the Great Temple site in Mexico City. Eduardo Verdugo/AP hide caption

Archaeologists have made key discoveries about the Aztecs at the Great Temple site in Mexico City.

"After they arrived here on Nov. 8, it's likely that the first place the Aztecs brought the Spanish was here to the Great Temple," says Carlos Javier González González, former director of the Great Temple project. "Symbolically, the Great Temple was the center of the universe to the Aztecs. It was the point from which the world turned."

NPR joined González and Raúl Barrera Rodríguez, director of the urban archaeology program at Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History, for a tour around the Great Temple's remains.

For centuries, Spanish testimony portrayed the Aztecs and other Indigenous groups in the Americas as uncivilized, savage barbarians. But continued excavation of the Great Temple and Tenochtitlán has helped change that perception.

"Tenochtitlán was a huge city," says Barrera. "It had public institutions, a whole system of government, public servants, schools, public services — it was a totally organized city."

After the fall of Tenochtitlán, the Spanish built their city directly on top of it. Barrera's urban archaeology program, which has first rights to excavation at any buildings under construction or renovation in Mexico City's historical center, aims to reveal this underground city.

"It's like a puzzle we're trying to put together," he says.

In 2017, Barrera's team uncovered the Huey Tzompantli, a tower of human skulls that was a monument to the Aztecs' highest deity, Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun. The conquistadors described a terrifying satanic sight. It was precisely the opposite for Aztecs.

The Two-Way

Aztec 'tower of skulls' reveals women, children were sacrificed.

"It is important to understand the worldview of the Aztecs," says Barrera. "The tzompantli was about giving life."

As Barrera explains, the Aztecs had deep, complex rituals around death. Aztecs believed their gods needed nourishment to survive and made them offerings of people and animals. For example, offering warriors — primarily prisoners of war — ensured the sun would continue to shine and the Aztecs would be successful in war. The Spanish didn't see it that way.

"The image we have of the Aztecs was overwhelmingly invented by Spaniards at the time," says Restall. "They used it to not only justify the conquest and colonization but any and all acts of violence that subsequently emerged."

About 650,000 people come to learn about the Aztecs at the Great Temple every year, 80% of them Mexican, according to the National Institute of Anthropology and History. José María Rosas, a 62-year-old taxi driver in Mexico City, was visiting it for the first time in early November.

"Seeing this is like going back in time, and I'm recognizing that these are my roots," he says. "Who am I as a descendant of the Indigenous people?"

González says he has seen that attitudes toward pre-Hispanic history have changed during his four decades of work at the Great Temple.

"The interest in and importance of all this is growing, to recover and incorporate our pre-Hispanic history into our identity as Mexicans," he says.

And Restall thinks the implications reach even further.

"Misunderstanding and misrepresentation of something like Aztec civilization today can make it easier for us to misunderstand and misrepresent Indigenous peoples of the Americas," he says.

With Mexico's president still insisting on Spain's apology and calling for "reconciliation" with the Spanish over the conquest, it will continue to be present in modern-day Mexico.

Correction Nov. 10, 2019

An earlier version of this story mistakenly referred to Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History as the National Institute of Archeology and History.

• Spanish conquest
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• Hernán Cortés
• Mexican history

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Hernan Cortes and the Spanish Conquest of Mexico

Hernan Cortes: The Conquistador Who Beat the Aztecs

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Hernan Cortes was a Spanish conquistador who lived between the 15th and 16th centuries AD. He is best remembered for his expedition against the Aztec Empire centered in Mexico. This was part of the first phase of Spain’s expansion into the New World. Hernan Cortes’ expedition resulted in the collapse of the Aztec Empire, and the control of a large part of modern-day Mexico by the Spanish Empire. On the one hand, Cortes is regarded as a heroic character who contributed greatly to the Spanish Empire. On the other hand, he is perceived as a villain whose murderous actions caused the downfall of a sophisticated civilization.

The Early Life of Hernan Cortes

Hernan Cortes was born in 1485 in Medellin, a village in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura , Spain. At that time, Cortes’ place of birth was part of the Kingdom of Castile . Cortes’ father was Martin Cortes de Monroy, an infantry captain, whilst his mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Cortes’ family belonged to the lesser nobility, though they were by no means wealthy. Incidentally, through his mother, Cortes was a second cousin of Francisco Pizarro, another conquistador who gained fame from his expedition in the New World.

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At the age of 14, Cortes was sent to study at the University of Salamanca . This was Spain’s foremost center of learning at the time. Although it is unclear what Cortes studied at the university, it is assumed that he studied Law, and perhaps Latin. It seems that Cortes’ parents were hoping that their son would embark on a legal career, which would have made him wealthy. Unfortunately, Cortes returned to Medellin after spending two years at Salamanca, as studying was probably not his strong point. Although Cortes did not finish his studies, his time at Salamanca did help him familiarize himself with the legal codes of Castile, which would come in handy later in his life.

Hernan Cortes portrait on a Spanish 1000 peseta note from 1992. (vkilikov / Adobe Stock)

Cortes’ return to Medellin was not exactly a change for the better for the future conquistador. As Medellin was only a small village, it would have been a rather stifling place for the ambitious young man. Around the same time, Christopher Columbus was making his voyages to the New World, and news of his exciting discoveries would have certainly reached the ears of Cortes and his parents, who recognized that Cortes might be able to make a name for himself in these newly discovered lands.

Therefore, in 1502, arrangements were made for Hernan Cortes to sail to the New World with Nicolas de Ovando, the newly appointed governor of Hispaniola , and a family acquaintance.

Cortes, however, was not destined to be part of this voyage. Before he could even set sail, Cortes sustained an injury whilst escaping from the bedroom of a married woman in Medellin. Consequently, he had to take some time to recover from his injury, after which, he spent a while wandering around Spain.

Cortes did manage to sail to the New World in 1503, as part of a convoy of merchant ships headed to the capital of Hispaniola, Santo Domingo. Cortes was on a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who attempted to deceive his superiors. Quintero did so to reach the New World first, and to secure personal advantages. It is suggested that Quintero’s actions might have been a model for Cortes’ own treacherous behavior when he became a conquistador later on.

In any case, this was still many years before Cortes became the man who conquered the Aztec Empire . When he arrived in Santo Domingo, Cortes registered himself as a citizen, which gave him the right to a building plot, and some land for cultivation. As de Ovando was still the governor at that time, he gave Cortes a repartimiento (corvée labor) of natives and made him a notary of the town of Azuza. Thus, over the next couple of years, Cortes slowly established himself in Hispaniola.

Portrait of Diego Velasquez de Cuellar, who led the expedition to Cuba in which Hernan Cortes was given a chance to prove his spirit. (John Carter Brown Library / Public domain )

Hernan Cortes’ Expedition to Cuba

In 1511, Cortes joined the expedition to conquer Cuba . The expedition was led by Diego Velazquez de Cuellar, an aide to the governor of Hispaniola. Velazquez, who became the governor of Cuba, was so impressed by Cortes that he gave him a high position in the colonial administration.

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• Test Show’s Aztec Gold Bar Was Lost By Fleeing Conquistadors

Although Cortes and Velazquez were initially on good terms, the relationship between the two men deteriorated over time. For instance, Cortes was jailed twice by the governor, but succeeded is escaping on both occasions. Nevertheless, Cortes earned a reputation for being daring and bold. Moreover, following Cortes’ marriage to Catalina Xuarez, Velazquez’s sister-in-law, relations between the two men improved.

In 1518, Velazquez and Cortes signed an agreement, which placed the latter in command of an expedition to explore the coast of Mexico . Cortes was to initiate trade with the indigenous people he met during his voyage. It has been suggested that the governor wanted Cortes to only engage in trade, so that he could have the privilege to conquer the indigenous people himself later.

Cortes, however, used the legal knowledge he gained during his days at Salamanca to insert a clause in the agreement that would allow him to take necessary emergency measures without Velazquez’s prior approval if they profited Spain.

Although Velazquez had earlier commissioned another expedition to explore the Mexican coast, Hernan Cortes’ was much bigger. This earlier one, led by the governor’s nephew, consisted of four ships, whereas Cortes assembled a fleet of 11 ships. About half of Cortes’ expedition was financed by Velazquez. Cortes himself went into debt as a result of borrowing additional funds for the expedition, when his own assets went dry. The financial commitment of both men showed that they were both keenly aware that the conquest of Mexico would bring them great fame, fortune, and glory.

It was also this awareness that made Velazquez suspicious that Cortes would betray him, conquer Mexico on his own, and establish himself as governor of the newly conquered land. Therefore, the governor decided to replace Cortes with someone he had more faith in.

Luis de Medina was sent with Velazquez’s orders to replace Cortes. Unfortunately for de Medina, he was intercepted, and killed by Cortes’ brother-in-law. When Cortes heard the news, he sped up the preparations for his expedition. On the 18 th of February 1519, Cortes was about to set sail, when Velazquez himself arrived at the dock, in one last attempt to revoke the conquistador’s commission. Cortes, however, ignored the governor, and hurriedly sailed off.    

This old painting by an unknown artist shows the entrance of Hernan Cortes into the city of Tabasco on the Yucatan. ( Public domain )

Before Attacking the Aztecs, Cortes Visits the Yucatan

Prior to arriving on the mainland, Cortes spent some time on the island of Cozumel , where he heard stories of other white men living in the Yucatan. It turns out that there were two Spaniards, Geronimo de Aguilar, and Gonzalo Guerrero living amongst the Maya . These two were survivors of a shipwreck in 1511.

Whilst Guerrero chose to continue living with the Maya, de Aguilar, who was a Franciscan priest, joined Cortes’ expedition. During his time with the Maya, de Aguilar picked up Yucatec Mayan, as well as a few other Mesoamerican languages, which made him valuable as a translator.

Geronimo de Aguilar, however, was not the only translator on Cortes’ expedition. Shortly after leaving Cozumel, the expedition landed at Potonchanon, on the tip of the Yucatan Peninsula . It was here that Cortes found his second translator, a woman whom Cortes referred to as Dona Marina, and known also as Malintzen, or La Malinche.

The story of Malintzen’s early life is unclear, though it is generally accepted that she was born into a family but was enslaved as a child. It is believed that during her slavery, Malintzen was sold several times, which brought her to different parts of the Yucatan Peninsula. As a result of her forced travels, Malintzen became fluent in both Yucatec and Nahuatl, the latter being the language of the Aztecs, and a lingua franca of the area.

When Cortes arrived in Potonchanon, he was given 20 enslaved women, one of whom was Malintzen, as a peace offering. The women were forced to join the expedition and were baptized as Catholics. Malintzen’s linguistic skills were soon recognized, and she was paired with de Aguilar. Initially, Cortes would speak to de Aguilar in Spanish, who would translate it into Yucatec. Malintzen would then translate this into Nahuatl, thereby enabling Cortes to speak with the natives.

Eventually, Malintzen learned Spanish as well, which allowed her to communicate directly between Cortes and the Aztecs he met without de Aguilar as an intermediary. Malintzen, however, was more than just an interpreter, and played a significant role in Cortes’ conquest of the Aztec Empire. For instance, Malintzen was instrumental in helping Cortes to form alliances with tribes that were eager to overthrow their Aztec overlords. Malintzen also uncovered plots against the Spanish, who foiled them before any serious harm could be done. Thus, Malintzen was addressed by Cortes’ men with the title Dona, meaning “Lady.”

It was on this Veracruz, Mexico beach (where the Quiahuiztlan archeological site stands today) that Hernan Cortes landed his Mexican expedition in 1519 and scuttled his fleet to ensure maximum motivation for his soldiers. (Gengiskanhg / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

Hernan Cortes Attacks the Aztecs from Veracruz, Mexico

After a few months in the Yucatan, Cortes continued his journey westward, and founded the settlement of La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (modern-day Veracruz). Cortes got himself elected as captain-general of the new settlement, which freed him from the authority of Velazquez. It was from this settlement that Cortes began his campaign to conquer the Aztec Empire. Initially, the Aztecs did not see the Spanish as a threat. In fact, their ruler, Moctezuma II sent emissaries to present gifts to these foreign strangers. This, however, did little to change the minds of the Spanish. As a matter of fact, Cortes had all but one of his ships scuttled, which meant that he and his men would either conquer the Aztecs Empire or die trying.

As Cortes marched towards Tenochtitlan , the Aztec capital, he made alliances with the local tribes, one of the first being the Tlaxcalans, who were bitter enemies of the Aztecs. Following the Massacre of Cholula in 1519, more tribes decided to submit to the Spanish, fearing that they would suffer the same fate as the Cholulans if they refused.

In any event, when Cortes and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, he was warmly welcomed by Moctezuma. It seems that the emperor intended to learn more about the Spanish, especially their weaknesses, so that he could crush them later. Cortes, however, found out about Moctezuma’s plot, and took the emperor hostage, believing that this would stop the Aztecs from attacking him and his men.

In the meantime, an expedition under Panfilo de Narvaez was sent in 1520 by Velazquez to relieve Cortes of his command, capture the renegade conquistador, and bring him back to Cuba to be tried. When he heard of the expedition, Cortes took some of his men, and launched a surprise night attack on de Narvaez’s much larger army, thereby defeating it.

After this victory, he hurried back to Tenochtitlan, as the situation there was quite tense as well. During Cortes’ absence, the Spanish in the city had killed many Aztec nobles during a religious festival, which led to them being besieged in Moctezuma’s palace. When Cortes returned, he decided that the best course of action was to retreat from Tenochtitlan.

The decision to retreat was in part caused by the death of Moctezuma. According to one version of the story, Moctezuma was killed by the Spanish after they realized he had outlived his usefulness. According to another account, the emperor was pelted with stones when he tried to speak to his subjects from a balcony and died of his wounds.

Whilst the Cortes were crossing the causeway to the mainland, his rear guard was attacked by the Aztecs, and he lost many men. This episode became known as La Noche Triste, or “The Night of Sorrows.”

Spanish conquistador, Hernan Cortes, as he must have looked towards the end of his life by an unknown artist. (Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando / Public domain )

Cortes Takes The Aztec Capital And Moves On

In spite of this victory, the Aztecs had not crushed the Spanish, and Cortes, having regrouped his men, returned to Tenochtitlan in 1521, besieged the city, and captured it. Although the fall of Tenochtitlan made Cortes the conqueror of the Aztec Empire, in reality the Spanish took many more years to conquer the rest of Mesoamerica.

• The Many Burials of Hernan Cortes: Locating the Gravesite of a Conquistador
• Will The Lost Fleet of Hernán Cortés And Its Treasures of the Aztec Finally be Found?

In any case, Cortes’ achievement, as well as all the treasures he brought back to Spain, made him a very popular man when he returned home. At the same time, there were also those who were jealous of Cortes’ success, and sought to bring him down. In 1528, Cortes returned to Spain to seek justice from the Spanish king, Charles V. He succeeded in convincing the king and was rewarded for his efforts in Mexico.

Cortes returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles, but his powers were reduced. Cortes stayed in Mexico till 1541, and led several expeditions, though these are much less celebrated than his conquest of the Aztec Empire.

In 1541, Cortes returned to Spain, and was part of the expedition against Algiers. In 1547, Cortes decided to return to Mexico, but died whilst he was in Seville on the 2 nd of December that year.

His remains were moved several times, before their location was lost, only to be rediscovered in Mexico City during the 20 th century.

Top image: Hernan Cortes burning his ships to motivate his men as they begin to tackle the Aztec Empire from their base in Veracruz, Mexico. Source: joserpizarro / Adobe Stock

By Wu Mingren

American Historical Association, 2021. Jeronimo de Aguilar. [Online] Available at: https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-...

History.com Editors, 2019. Hernan Cortes. [Online] Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/hernan-cortes

Innes, R. H., 2021. Hernán Cortés. [Online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hernan-Cortes

New World Encyclopedia, 2017. Hernán Cortés. [Online] Available at: https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s

Szalay, J., 2018. Hernán Cortés: Conqueror of the Aztecs. [Online] Available at: https://www.livescience.com/39238-hernan-cortes-conqueror-of-the-aztecs....

The BBC, 2014. Hernando Cortés (1485-1547). [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cortes_hernan.shtml

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2021. Montezuma II. [Online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Montezuma-II

Women & the American Story, 2021. Life Story: Malitzen (La Malinche). [Online] Available at: https://wams.nyhistory.org/early-encounters/spanish-colonies/malitzen/

Wu Mingren (‘Dhwty’) has a Bachelor of Arts in Ancient History and Archaeology. Although his primary interest is in the ancient civilizations of the Near East, he is also interested in other geographical regions, as well as other time periods.... Read More

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Jan–?? 1518 Grijalva explores southern Gulf of Mexico

18 Nov 1518–22 Apr 1519 Cortés leads expedition from Cuba to Mexico

Dec 1518–May 1519 Smallpox devastates Taíno population of Hispaniola

Mar 1519 Cortés founds Santa María de la Victoria

Mar 1519–Jan 1520 De Pineda explores northern Gulf of Mexico

22 Apr 1519 Cortés founds Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz

22 April 1519

Conquistadors, north america, cortés’ expedition to mexico.

In 1518 and 1519 the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Santiago (Jamaica) sent expeditions to explore the Gulf of Mexico , establishing its extent and discovering the Aztec Empire . In late 1518 Governor Velázquez of Cuba gave the magistrate Hernán Cortés command of a follow-up expedition to secure a foothold on the mainland, but the ambitious Cortés soon broke away from Velázquez’s authority, gathering over 500 adventurers to join him. Sailing to Mexico, he established the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (Veracruz) on the coast of the Aztec Empire in April 1519.

Main Events

Jan– 1518 grijalva’s first expedition ▲.

In January 1518 Velázquez de Cuéllar, the Spanish governor of Cuba, sent his 28-year-old nephew Juan de Grijalva on an expedition to explore the lands recently discovered by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. With four ships and over two hundred men, Grijalva sighted Cozumel island on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in May, before traveling west to defeat the Maya of Chakán Putum in battle, discover the land of Tabasco, and briefly visit the previously-unknown Aztec Empire in June. Grijalva then continued north as far as Cabo Rojo before returning to Cuba, where he was reprimanded for not establishing any colonies. in wikipedia

18 Nov 1518–22 Apr 1519 Cortés’ expedition to Mexico ▲

In October 1518 Governor Velázquez of Cuba appointed the 34-year-old magistrate Hernán Cortés to lead an expedition to secure a foothold in Mexico. Cortés quickly mustered seven ships and more than 300 volunteers, leaving Santiago de Cuba in November in the face of Velázquez’s alarmed attempts to recall and replace him. Traveling to western Cuba, Cortés gathered more followers—11 vessels, 530 troops, 50 sailors, 16 horses, and 14 large artillery in total—before proceeding to Yucatán and then westwards along the coast. In April 1519 he landed on the mainland near the island of San Juan de Ullúa, where he was greeted by the local Totonac people, subjects of the Aztec Empire. in wikipedia

Dec 1518–May 1519 Hispaniola Smallpox Epidemic ▲

In December 1518 smallpox was noticed among the African slaves working in the mines of Hispaniola; the disease soon spread to the island’s indigenous Taíno population, who had no natural immunity. By May 1519 up to a third of Hispaniola’s Taíno had died from smallpox and the epidemic was already raging in the neighboring islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico. in wikipedia

25 Mar 1519 Santa María de la Victoria ▲

In March 1519 Hernán Cortés landed outside the Chontal Maya town of Potonchán, where he located a ship that had become separated from his fleet during an earlier storm. When negotiations broke down, the Spaniards used their horses and artillery to defeat the Maya at the Battle of Centla, destroying Potonchán and founding the village of Santa María de la Victoria in its place. As tribute, the Maya gave Cortés a number of slaves, including a woman, Malinche, who would soon become his translator and counselor (and later gave birth to his first son). Shortly after Cortés left, the Maya besieged Santa María de la Victoria; it would remain in a precarious situation until the Spanish conquest of Tabasco in 1528–37. in wikipedia

Mar 1519–Jan 1520 De Pineda’s expedition ▲

In March 1519 Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, financed by Governor Francisco de Garay of Santiago (Jamaica), set sail for Florida with four ships and 270 men. Pushed west by winds, de Pineda explored the mouth of a great and deep river—either the Mississippi or Mobile Bay and the Alabama River—before traveling along the coast from Texas to central Mexico. When he arrived in Veracruz, Hernán Cortés—who had arrived shortly beforehand—threatened him with arrest. De Pineda fled north to Huastec country, where he and all but 60 of his crew were massacred just before a relief expedition reached them in early 1520. in wikipedia

22 Apr 1519 Foundation of Veracruz ▲

Landing in Totonac land, part of the Aztec Empire, on Good Friday 1519, Hernán Cortés founded a settlement of palm huts as Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (literally “Rich Town of the True Cross”). He then resigned as captain general of his expedition and established himself as mayor of the new town—a series of legal maneuvers which allowed Cortés to cut ties with Velázquez’s government in Cuba and report directly to the Spanish king. Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz would soon become known as Veracruz, Mexico’s most important port. in wikipedia

The Ages of Exploration

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Hernan Cortes (1485–1547) was a Spanish conquistador and the leader of the expedition which brought down the mighty Aztec Empire between 1519 and 1521. Cortes was a ruthless leader whose ambition was matched only by his conviction that he could bring the Indigenous peoples of Mexico to the Kingdom of Spain and Christianity, and make himself fabulously wealthy in the process. As a controversial historical figure, there are many myths about Hernan Cortes. What's the truth about history's most legendary conquistador?

He Wasn't Supposed to Go on His Historical Expedition

In 1518, Governor Diego Velazquez of Cuba outfitted an expedition to the mainland and selected Hernan Cortes to lead it. The expedition was to explore the coastline, make contact with Indigenous peoples, perhaps engage in some trade, and then return to Cuba. As Cortes made his plans, however, it was clear that he was planning a mission of conquest and settlement. Velazquez tried to remove Cortes, but the ambitious conquistador hurriedly set sail before his old partner could remove him from command. Eventually, Cortes was forced to repay Velazquez' investment in the venture, but not cut him in on the fabulous wealth the Spaniards found in Mexico.

He Had a Knack for Legality

Had Cortes not become a soldier and conquistador, he would have made a fine lawyer. During Cortes' day, Spain had a very complicated legal system, and Cortes often used it to his advantage. When he left Cuba, he was in a partnership with Diego Velazquez, but he didn't feel that the terms suited him. When he landed near present-day Veracruz, he followed the legal steps to found a municipality and "elected" his friends as the officials. They, in turn, canceled his previous partnership and authorized him to explore Mexico. Later, he coerced his captive Montezuma to verbally accept the King of Spain as his master. With Montezuma an official vassal of the king, any Mexican fighting the Spanish was technically a rebel and could be dealt with harshly.  

He Didn't Burn His Ships

A popular legend says that Hernan Cortes burned his ships in Veracruz after landing his men, signaling his intention to conquer the Aztec Empire or die trying. In fact, he did not burn them, but he did dismantle them because he wanted to keep the important parts. These came in handy later in the Valley of Mexico, when he had to build some brigantines on Lake Texcoco to begin the siege of Tenochtitlan.

He Had a Secret Weapon: Malinche

Forget cannons, guns, swords, and crossbows - Cortes' secret weapon was a teenage girl he had picked up in the Maya lands before marching on Tenochtitlan. While visiting the town of Potonchan, Cortes was gifted 20 women by the local lord. One of them was Malinali, who as a girl had lived in a Nahuatl-speaking land. Therefore, she spoke both Maya and Nahuatl. She could converse with the Spanish through a man named Aguilar who had lived among the Maya. But " Malinche ," as she came to be known, was far more valuable than that. Although she was essentially enslaved, she became a trusted advisor to Cortes, advising him when treachery was afoot and she saved the Spanish on more than one occasion from Aztec plots. 

His Allies Won the War for Him

While he was on his way to Tenochtitlan, Cortes and his men passed through the lands of the Tlaxcalans, traditional enemies of the mighty Aztecs. The fierce Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish invaders bitterly and although they wore them down, they found that they could not defeat these intruders. The Tlaxcalans sued for peace and welcomed the Spanish into their capital city. There, Cortes forged an alliance with the Tlaxcalans which would pay off handsomely for the Spanish. Henceforth, the Spanish invasion was supported by thousands of doughty warriors who hated the Mexica and their allies. After the Night of Sorrows, the Spanish regrouped in Tlaxcala. It is not an exaggeration to say that Cortes would never have succeeded without his Tlaxcalan allies.

He Lost the Treasure of Montezuma

Cortes and his men occupied Tenochtitlan in November of 1519 and immediately began badgering Montezuma and the Aztec nobles for gold. They had already collected a great deal on their way there, and by June of 1520,​ they had amassed an estimated eight tons of gold and silver. After Montezuma's death, they were forced to flee the city on a night remembered by the Spanish as the Night of Sorrows because half of them were killed by angry Mexica warriors. They managed to get some of the treasure out of the city, but most of it was lost and never recovered.

But What He Didn't Lose, He Kept for Himself

When Tenochtitlan was finally conquered once and for all in 1521, Cortes and his surviving men divided up their ill-gotten loot. After Cortes took out the royal fifth, his own fifth and made generous, questionable "payments" to many of his cronies, there was precious little left for his men, most of whom received fewer than 200 pesos apiece. It was an insulting sum for brave men who had risked their lives time and again, and most of them spent the rest of their lives believing that Cortes had hidden a vast fortune from them. Historical accounts seem to indicate that they were correct: Cortes most likely cheated not only his men but the king himself, failing to declare all of the treasure and not sending the king his rightful 20% under Spanish law.

He Probably Murdered His Wife

In 1522, after finally conquering the Aztec Empire, Cortes received an unexpected visitor: his wife, Catalina Suárez, whom he had left behind in Cuba. Catalina could not have been pleased to see her husband with another woman, but she remained in Mexico anyway. On November 1, 1522, Cortes hosted a party at his home at which Catalina is alleged to have angered him by making comments about the Indigenous peoples. She died that very night, and Cortes put out the story that she had a bad heart. Many suspected that he actually killed her. Indeed, some of the evidence suggests that he did, such as servants in his home that saw bruise marks on her neck after death and the fact that she had repeatedly told her friends that he treated her violently. Criminal charges were dropped, but Cortes lost a civil case and had to pay off his deceased wife's family.

The Conquest of Tenochtitlan Was Not the End of His Career

Hernan Cortes' audacious conquest made him famous and rich. He was made Marquis of the Oaxaca Valley and he built himself a fortified palace which can still be visited in Cuernavaca. He returned to Spain and met the king. When the king didn't recognize him right away, Cortes said: "I am the one who gave you more kingdoms than you had towns before." He became governor of New Spain (Mexico) and led a disastrous expedition to Honduras in 1524. He also personally led expeditions of exploration in western Mexico, seeking a strait which would connect the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico. He returned to Spain and died there in 1547.​

Modern Mexicans Despise Him

Many modern Mexicans do not see the arrival of the Spanish in 1519 as bringers of civilization, modernity or Christianity: rather, they think the conquistadors were a brutal gang of cutthroats who plundered the rich culture of central Mexico. They may admire Cortes' audacity or courage, but they find his cultural genocide abominable. There are no major monuments to Cortes anywhere in Mexico, but heroic statues of Cuitlahuac and Cuauhtémoc, two Mexica Emperors who fought bitterly against the Spanish invaders, grace the beautiful avenues of modern Mexico City.

• Important Events in the Conquest of the Aztec Empire
• The Conquest of the Aztec Empire
• 8 Important Figures in the Conquest of the Aztec Empire
• Biography of Malinche, Enslaved Woman and Interpreter to Hernán Cortés
• Hernan Cortes and His Tlaxcalan Allies
• Hernan Cortes and His Captains
• Timeline of Hernan Cortes' Conquest of the Aztecs
• Treasure of the Ancient Aztecs
• 10 Facts About Aztec Leader Montezuma
• The Death of Emperor Montezuma
• Biography of Diego Velazquez de Cuellar, Conquistador
• The Cholula Massacre
• The Night of Sorrows
• Biography of Hernán Cortés, Ruthless Conquistador
• Biography of Hernando Cortez
• Ten Facts About Pedro de Alvarado

497 years ago today, Hernán Cortes arrived in Mexico (for better or worse)

If you were around 497 years ago today (March 4, 1519), you would have witnessed a truly historic event that forever altered life in what eventually would become the modern nation of Mexico. Here is a commentary by historian Dr. Matthew Partridge.

Loosely defined, the historical Age of Exploration lasted for 200 years, from the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the first attempt to chart Australia in 1644. In all that time, the explorer who arguably made the biggest impact was Hernan Cortes. He was born in 1485 to an impoverished noble family. He trained as a notary before sailing to Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and Dominican Republic) as a colonist in 1504. After becoming the colony’s notary, he played a key role in the conquest of Cuba in 1511.

In 1518, he embarked on an expedition to conquer the interior of Mexico. He arrived in 1519 with 500 soldiers. By July, he had removed himself from the Cuban governor’s authority, scuttling his ships to prevent his army from retreating. He marched on Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire. Emperor Montezuma II, facing a huge force that had been swollen by tribes who were hostile to him, welcomed Cortes into the capital and showered him with gifts. This generosity merely confirmed Cortes’s hopes that Mexico held a vast amount of gold.

Spaniard Hernán Cortes (1485-1547) landed at Tabasco in March 1519. (legadohistoria.blogspot.com)

On entering the capital, Cortes seized power and made Montezuma his puppet. A rebellion against his rule – during which Montezuma was killed – failed and Cortes formally subjugated the country on 13 August 1521, ending the Aztec Empire. King Charles I of Spain rewarded Cortes with titles, but the monarch also sent other officials to keep him under control.

As it was, the Aztec subjugation marked the high point of Cortes’s career. Subsequent expeditions to Honduras and northern Mexico were financial disasters. Cortes died in Spain in 1547, heavily indebted, while awaiting a return voyage to Mexico. However, his conquest of Mexico laid the ground for Spanish control over Latin America, which continued until the beginning of the 19th century.

By Dr Matthew Partridge for MoneyWeek

Source: moneyweek.com

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Festivals and Celebrations

Why Did Cortes Go to Mexico: Unraveling the Motives Behind His Journey

Short answer why did Cortes go to Mexico: Hernan Cortes, a Spanish conquistador, went to Mexico in 1519 with the aim of expanding Spain’s colonial empire, seeking wealth and power, converting indigenous peoples to Christianity, and fulfilling his personal ambition for fame and riches.

The Intriguing Motivations of Cortes: Unveiling the Mystery Behind His Journey to Mexico

Unraveling the Epic Quest: A Step-by-Step Analysis of Why Cortes Set Foot in Mexico

Delving into History: FAQ on Why Did Cortes Go to Mexico and Its Impact on World History

Decoding Cortes’ Ambitions: Understanding How and Why He Chose to Explore Mexico

Behind the Conquistador’s Expedition: Exploring the Hidden Factors that Drove Cortes to Mexico

From curiosity to conquest: tracing cortes’ path as we investigate why he went to mexico.

We all know the name Hernán Cortés, the Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that led to the fall of the mighty Aztec Empire. But have you ever wondered what exactly drove this ambitious and enigmatic man to take on such a daring and treacherous journey? Join us as we delve into the depths of history to unveil the mystery behind Cortés’ motivations.

To truly understand Cortés, we must first examine the historical context in which he lived. It was an era characterized by explorations and conquests, fueled by a thirst for wealth, power, and glory. Spain, one of the major players in this race for dominance, sought new territories to expand their empire beyond Europe’s boundaries. This sets the stage for Cortés’ determination to make his mark on history.

One cannot overlook one crucial motivation: greed. The allure of gold and riches undoubtedly played a significant role in driving Cortés towards Mexico. The tales of unimaginable wealth adorned with precious gemstones circulating throughout Europe mesmerized him, igniting a burning desire to claim those treasures for himself and fulfill his dreams of fortune.

However, it would be simplistic to attribute Cortés’ motives solely to greed. A deeper dive reveals complex layers beneath his ambitions. As an ambitious young man from Extremadura, Spain—a region known for producing tough and resilient individuals—Cortés longed for fame and recognition. He craved validation from his peers and superiors alike; he yearned not just for material success but also for prestige amongst fellow conquistadors.

In addition to these personal aspirations, religious fervor played a profound role in shaping Cortés’ motivations. During this period rife with religious conflicts between Catholicism and Protestantism, many Spaniards saw themselves as soldiers fighting a holy war against infidels. For Cortés, the conquest of Mexico provided an opportunity to bring Christianity to a land perceived as pagan, thus fulfilling what he believed to be his divine mission.

Yet, it would be remiss to overlook the role of sheer audacity in Cortés’ motivations. The sheer audacity to challenge authority and defy orders from Diego Velázquez, the Governor of Cuba who originally sent him on a mission. Instead of settling for the assigned task, Cortés took matters into his own hands, defying direct orders and setting out on his own adventure. This insubordination reveals a man driven by an unyielding determination to go above and beyond expectations.

As we piece together these fragments of historical evidence, we begin to unravel the enigma that is Hernán Cortés. While material wealth undoubtedly played a significant role in motivating his journey to Mexico, it is clear that his ambitions encompassed far more than mere greed. Cortés longed for fame, validation, and divine purpose—a quest that simultaneously propelled him towards success and plunged him into moral ambiguity.

In conclusion, Hernán Cortés’ motivations for embarking on his perilous journey to Mexico were indeed multifaceted and intriguing. From his desire for unimaginable wealth and personal recognition to religious zealotry and audacious defiance of authority—the true motives behind this conquistador’s actions can never be fully captured in just one lens. It is within this complex tapestry that we find glimpses of greatness intertwined with shadows of ambition—forever etching Hernán Cortés’ name in history’s annals as both hero and villain.

The conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés stands as a monumental event in history, forever altering the course of the Americas. The audacity and determination displayed by this Spanish conquistador have fascinated scholars and history enthusiasts for centuries. However, behind the facade of glory and adventure lies a complex web of motivations and circumstances that led Cortés to embark on his daring expedition. In this blog post, we will delve into a detailed, professional analysis to unravel the epic quest and uncover why Cortés set foot in Mexico.

To fully comprehend Cortés’ ambition, we must first understand the geopolitical landscape of early 16th-century Europe. The time period was marked by intense rivalries between major European powers – Spain being one of them – seeking new territories to extend their influence and extract wealth. Exploration had become an integral part of expanding empires, with notable achievements such as Christopher Columbus’ voyages energizing Spain’s appetite for discovery.

Cortés himself was undoubtedly influenced by these prevailing winds of exploration and imperialism. As a young man growing up in a society driven by tales of fortune from New World conquests, he undoubtedly harbored dreams of personal glory and immense wealth. This desire for fame and fortune fueled his decision to join expeditions to Hispaniola, Cuba, and eventually led him towards the Mexican coastline.

However, it would be simplistic to attribute Cortés’ actions solely to personal ambition. Historical evidence suggests that he also operated within a framework defined by geopolitical strategies employed by Spanish authorities at that time. Although initially not supported officially due to political intrigue against him back home from Diego Velázquez – Governor of Cuba – who felt threatened by another ambitious man like Cortes who had his own agenda; some historians argue that Cortés managed to generate significant support among influential figures who saw potential benefits in colonizing Mexico.

The indigenous allies that Cortés acquired along the way further added to his motivations. The complex political landscape of the Aztec Empire, marked by internal rivalries and resentments towards the ruling elite, presented a unique opportunity for Cortés to exploit these divisions. Through skillful diplomacy and clever manipulation, he managed to gather a diverse army consisting not only of Spaniards but also indigenous warriors who envisioned a chance to overthrow their oppressive Aztec overlords.

Another pivotal factor in Cortés’ decision to set foot in Mexico was undoubtedly the allure of unimaginable wealth hidden within its borders. Reports from earlier expeditions suggested that the region known as Tenochtitlan – present-day Mexico City – possessed vast quantities of gold, silver, and other precious treasures. Combined with rumors of priceless artifacts entangled within vibrant indigenous cultures, Cortés’ desire for exploration became intertwined with an insatiable lust for riches.

Cortés’ arrival in Mexico cannot be separated from religious motivations either. Spain during this period was deeply Christianized and driven by a fervent desire to convert non-Christian peoples to Catholicism. In line with this overarching mission, Cortés saw himself as an instrument of divine providence tasked with disseminating Christianity among the “heathen” inhabitants of Mexico – often forcibly at times.

In conclusion, Hernán Cortés’ quest to conquer Mexico encompassed a multitude of interconnected factors spanning personal ambition, geopolitical strategies, alliances with indigenous factions as well as religious zeal. This step-by-step analysis reveals that while glory and riches certainly played their part in driving him forward, larger historical forces were also at play. Understanding these complexities allows us to unravel the intricacies behind one of history’s most epic quests and reflect upon how it shaped both European dominance in the New World and the course of Mexican civilization forevermore.

Few historical figures have ignited as much curiosity and fascination as Hernan Cortes, the Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire. His audacious decision to venture into unknown territory captured the imaginations of countless historians, sparking endless debates about his motives and ambitions. In this blog post, we will delve deep into the enigma surrounding Cortes’ journey to Mexico, exploring frequently asked questions regarding his motivations and uncovering the significant impact it had on world history.

Q: Why did Cortes decide to go to Mexico? A: To fully grasp Cortes’ motivations, one must first understand the historical context of Europe during his time. The Age of Discovery was at its zenith – a period marked by a relentless thirst for exploration, wealth acquisition, and expanding political power. Influenced by this zeitgeist, Cortes yearned for fame and fortune that awaited those daring enough to embark on perilous voyages across uncharted territories. Moreover, rumors of immense wealth in far-off lands intrigued him greatly. Driven by ambition and desirous of proving himself a formidable conquistador, he turned his attention towards Mexico.

Q: What were some specific goals that prompted Cortes’ journey? A: While gold is often perceived as one of his primary objectives (and not without reason), there were other factors at play too. Cortes aimed to spread Christianity among indigenous civilizations – a noble endeavor intertwined with political interests of Spain’s Catholic monarchs. Additionally, he sought to expand Spanish influence across untapped territories in order to assert political dominance over rival European powers like Portugal and France. These intertwined strategies constituted essential driving forces behind his decision.

Q: How did Cortes manage to achieve such remarkable military successes against an empire as powerful as the Aztecs? A: Cortes’ triumph over the Aztecs was not solely due to military prowess; it was a confluence of various factors. Firstly, his alliance with indigenous groups hostile toward the Aztec Empire played a crucial role. These alliances not only provided Cortes with vital intelligence and logistical support but also assisted him in recruiting a formidable native army that helped tilt the balance against the Aztecs. Furthermore, Cortes skillfully exploited political rivalries among local leaders, undermining their unity and sowing seeds of dissent. Superior weaponry, advanced European military tactics, and diseases that devastated the indigenous population were additional factors stacked in Cortes’ favor.

Q: Did Cortes have any lasting impact on world history? A: Undoubtedly! Cortes’ conquest of Mexico marked one of the most pivotal moments in world history. It led to Spain’s colonization and subsequent domination of vast territories in the Americas for centuries to come. This expansion also accelerated Europe’s global influence, spurring further exploration and colonization by other European powers eager to replicate Spain’s successes. The fall of the Aztec Empire reshaped both political and cultural landscapes dramatically, leaving an indelible mark on indigenous cultures while instilling Spanish institutions, language, and religion into Mexican society.

In conclusion, Hernan Cortes’ decision to embark on his audacious journey to Mexico was driven by multifaceted motivations encompassing wealth acquisition, religious zeal, and geopolitical ambitions. Through shrewd alliances and tactful strategies, he successfully toppled the mighty Aztec Empire – an achievement that reverberated across continents and altered world history forever. The enduring legacy of this conqueror reminds us of both the profound impacts individuals can have on shaping historical narratives as well as the complex blend of factors motivating their actions in pursuit of glory.

In the annals of history, there are few individuals whose actions have left an indelible mark on the world as Hernan Cortes did. This intrepid explorer, renowned for his audacious conquest of the Aztec Empire, has captivated scholars and adventurers alike for centuries. While many theories have been posited about Cortes’ motivations and ambitions, unraveling the intricacies behind his decision to explore Mexico requires a deeper understanding of both the man himself and the historical context in which he lived.

Born in Medellin, Spain in 1485, Cortes grew up during a time when Spain was rapidly expanding its influence through overseas exploration. Inspired by tales of discovery and riches coming from newly discovered lands in America, Cortes nurtured a burning desire to make his own mark in this world. This insatiable ambition would eventually lead him to embark on an epic journey that would forever change the course of human history.

Cortes’ decision to explore Mexico was not a casual whim but rather a carefully calculated move rooted in a combination of personal aspirations and political circumstances. At that time, Mexico was under the rule of Moctezuma II, the formidable emperor of the Aztec Empire. Fueled by reports of untold wealth and grandeur within this civilization, Cortes saw an opportunity to carve out immense fame and fortune for himself.

However, it is important to note that Cortes did not set sail alone; he had essential support from Spanish leadership who recognized Mexico as a potential source of wealth for their empire. With royal backing from King Charles V and financial backing from prominent merchants such as Diego Velazquez, governor of Cuba at the time, Cortes assembled a well-equipped expeditionary force comprising soldiers, sailors, indigenous allies, and craftsmen necessary for colonization.

But why did Cortes choose Mexico specifically? Geography played a significant role in his decision. Located in the heart of Central America, Mexico had abundant natural resources and valuable commodities that were highly sought after in Europe. Cortes believed that by seizing this land and its riches, he could bring immense wealth back to Spain, further solidifying his role as a conquistador worthy of royal favor.

Yet, it wasn’t just material gain that lured Cortes towards Mexico; there was an element of romanticism and curiosity. The tales of advanced civilizations and exotic wonders intrigued him deeply, challenging his adventurous spirit. He was drawn to uncovering the mysteries of this vibrant land with its awe-inspiring temples, sprawling cities, and rich cultural tapestry.

Cortes’ exploration can also be viewed through the lens of imperialism. Spain’s thirst for expansionism fueled their desire to spread Christianity and establish dominance over new territories. Cortes saw himself not only as an explorer but also as a divine instrument tasked with bringing salvation to the indigenous “heathens.” This zealous faith propelled him forward, blurring the lines between evangelization and conquest.

In summary, Hernan Cortes chose to explore Mexico due to a deep-seated ambition for fame and fortune intertwined with political backing from Spanish authorities. The lure of untold riches hidden within the Aztec Empire coupled with grandiose visions of adventure compelled him onward. Moreover, geographical considerations, intellectual curiosity, spiritual zealotry, and the prevailing climate of colonial expansion all combined to shape Cortes’ fateful decision.

Decoding Cortes’ ambitions ultimately requires deciphering both his personal aspirations and the broader historical context in which he operated. By understanding these multifaceted motivations behind his exploration of Mexico, we can gain deeper insight into not only the man himself but also the complex forces that drove European expansion during this transformative era.

Title: Behind the Conquistador’s Expedition: Unveiling the Hidden Factors that Drove Cortes to Mexico

Introduction: The conquest of Mexico by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortes in the early 16th century remains one of history’s most audacious and controversial exploits. While textbooks often focus on the military prowess and strategic genius of Cortes, very little attention is paid to understanding the underlying motivators behind his expedition. Today, we aim to unravel the enigmatic forces that propelled this ambitious explorer towards Mexico. Join us as we delve deep into Cortes’ psyche and explore the hidden factors driving his audacious quest.

1. The Quest for Wealth: It would be remiss not to acknowledge that material gain played a significant role in driving Cortes towards Mexico. With stories of unimaginable riches from earlier expeditions, such as Christopher Columbus’s discovery of gold in the New World, Cortes was enticed by tales of untold fortunes waiting to be claimed. In an era where wealth equated power and prestige, it is no surprise that “El Dorado” became an irresistible lure, pushing him ever closer to Mexican shores.

2. Fame and Glorification: For many conquistadors like Cortes, embarking on conquests was intricately linked with seeking fame and immortalization in history books. The tales of legendary figures like Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar fueled their yearnings for everlasting glory. By conquering new lands and civilizations, they hoped to carve their names indelibly into humanity’s collective memory.

3. Imperialistic Ambitions: Underpinning much of Spain’s explorations during this era was a burgeoning imperialistic drive embedded within European societies. Growing empires craved expansion into uncharted territories as a way to assert dominance over rival nations while spreading religion and culture; Spain was no exception. By extending its reach across vast lands untouched by European influence, Spain sought to consolidate its colonial aspirations and strengthen its global standing.

4. Religious Zeal: The backdrop of Cortes’ expedition cannot be understood without acknowledging the religious fervor prevalent during the Age of Discovery. As a devout Catholic, Cortes was driven by a genuine belief in his divine mission to convert the indigenous population to Christianity. Coupled with a desire to eradicate perceived “pagan” practices, this zealous conviction further propelled his relentless pursuit to reach Mexico’s shores.

5. Personal Ambitions and Rivalries: Behind every conqueror lies an intricate web of personal ambitions and rivalries that shape their destinies. In Cortes’ case, there existed a lingering sense of dissatisfaction from previous expeditions where he felt overlooked and underappreciated by Spanish authorities. His determination to outshine his contemporaries, gain recognition, and solidify his position within Spain’s hierarchy ultimately led him on a collision course with Mexico.

Conclusion: Hernán Cortes’ expedition to Mexico was not merely motivated by simplistic notions of conquest or greed; it was fuelled by a complex interplay of factors intertwining ambition, wealth, fame, imperialism, religion, and personal desires. Acknowledging these often overlooked elements provides us with deeper insight into the motivations behind historical events that continue shaping our world today. By understanding this rich tapestry of hidden factors that drove Cortes towards Mexico, we can reflect on the complexities inherent in exploring human history while pondering the consequences and legacies left behind by audacious explorers like him.

Title: From Curiosity to Conquest: Tracing Cortes’ Path as We Investigate Why He Went to Mexico

Introduction: In the annals of history, few names evoke intrigue and controversy like that of Hernan Cortes, the Spanish conquistador who played a vital role in the fall of the Aztec Empire. While his actions are well-documented, what motivated this ambitious explorer to embark on such a perilous journey remains a subject of much debate. In this blog post, we will take you on a captivating adventure as we delve into the mind of Cortes, retracing his footsteps across Mexico and uncovering the profound curiosity and relentless pursuit of conquest that propelled him forward.

Unraveling the Enigma: To truly comprehend why Cortes set foot on Mexican soil in 1519, we must first understand his insatiable curiosity. Born and raised in Spain during an era known for its groundbreaking explorations, he was undoubtedly influenced by tales of Christopher Columbus’ voyages and other great expeditions. Like many adventurers of his time, Cortes yearned to challenge conventional knowledge while seeking fame and fortune.

A Surge for Power: As we begin following Cortes’ path towards Mexico, it becomes increasingly apparent that his motivations extended beyond mere curiosity. Ambition coursed through his veins – an unwavering desire to carve out a legacy for himself, both personally and within the vast Spanish empire. The golden land rumored to lie far beyond Atlantic shores presented an unparalleled opportunity for wealth acquisition – an aspiration many conquerors shared at that time.

The Mythical Attraction: Throughout our journey across Mexico’s rugged landscapes, one cannot overlook the intoxicating allure associated with mythical legends surrounding Montezuma’s splendid empire: Tenochtitlan. This fabled city had captured the imaginations of European explorers long before Cortes set sail. Tales whispered among adventurers spoke of massive temples coated in gold, streets adorned with intricate artwork, and a civilization rich in culture and resources. These rumors undoubtedly stoked Cortes’ curiosity further while adding to his desire for conquest.

The Confluence of Factors: As we dig deeper into Cortes’ motivations, it becomes apparent that numerous factors converged to propel him towards Mexico. A mixture of curiosity, ambition, and the quest for material wealth intertwined with an undercurrent of religious fervor. The Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella firmly believed that the spread of Christianity was their divine mission. Cortes saw his expedition as an opportunity to not only seek treasure but also convert indigenous populations to his faith – a powerful motive in a time when religious zealotry held significant influence.

Final Thoughts: From fascination to conquest, Hernan Cortes embarked on a journey driven by multifaceted motivations, immerging himself in the unknown lands of Mexico. His thirst for curious exploration blended seamlessly with the insatiable hunger for power inherent in many conquistadors. For some, he remains a hero; for others, a symbol of ruthless colonization. Regardless of one’s viewpoint, retracing Cortes’ path evokes deep reflection on the complexity of human aspirations and the consequences they may bring forth.

In Conclusion: Our investigation into Hernan Cortes’ motivations offers an insight into the mind of this renowned explorer-turned-conquistador. From Spain’s shores to Mexico’s heartland, we have followed his footsteps across history—embarking on an adventure filled with intrigue, power struggles, mythical legends, and personal ambitions. In tracing these paths curiously taken by men like Cortes lies our ability to deepen our understanding of both personal narratives and global impact—the remarkable stories which shape our world today.

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