tourism in 19th century

The Golden Era of Travel: Exploring Tourism in the 19th Century

Welcome to my blog, 19th Century ! In this article, we delve into the fascinating world of tourism during the 19th century . Discover how travel evolved during this era, from the rise of guidebooks to the advent of railway travel, and explore the destinations that captivated the hearts of adventurous globetrotters. Join me on this journey back in time as we unravel the secrets of 19th-century tourism.

Table of Contents

The Rise of Tourism in the 19th Century: Exploring the Golden Age of Travel

The 19th century marked a significant turning point in the history of tourism, as it witnessed the rise of what is often referred to as the Golden Age of Travel. This era saw a remarkable increase in leisure travel, with more people than ever before venturing out to explore the world around them.

One of the primary reasons for this surge in tourism was the Industrial Revolution. With technological advancements and improved transportation systems, travel became more accessible and affordable for a growing middle class . Railways, steamships, and later, automobiles, revolutionized the way people could move from one place to another.

The development of guidebooks and travel literature also played a crucial role in promoting tourism during this time. Authors such as Thomas Cook and Baedeker published detailed travel guides, providing information on sights, accommodations, and even itineraries. These guidebooks not only inspired people to travel but also provided practical assistance for planning their journeys.

Another factor contributing to the rise of tourism in the 19th century was the growing interest in health and wellness. Many tourists sought out destinations known for their rejuvenating qualities, such as spas and resorts. These places offered a break from the pressures of urban life and promised relaxation and restoration.

Additionally, the rise of imperialism and colonialism spurred travel to far-flung corners of the globe. Europeans, in particular, were drawn to exotic destinations, eager to explore and experience different cultures. The British Empire, for example, created a vast network of colonies that attracted travelers seeking adventure and new discoveries.

It is important to note that while tourism boomed during this period, it was primarily enjoyed by the wealthier classes. Working-class individuals often did not have the means or time off to engage in leisure travel.

In conclusion, the 19th century was a pivotal time in the history of tourism, witnessing the advent of the Golden Age of Travel. The combination of improved transportation, the availability of travel literature, interest in health and wellness, and colonial expansion all contributed to the rise of tourism during this era.

Switzerland 🇨🇭 The famous Alpine hotel since the 19th century. Rhone Glacier. #tourism #travel

The dark side of vietnam, did tourism exist in the 1800s.

Yes, tourism did exist in the 19th century. While it may not have been as widespread or accessible as it is today, people during this time period did engage in travel for leisure and exploration. The Industrial Revolution brought about advancements in transportation, such as the development of steamships and railways, which made it easier for individuals to journey to different parts of the world.

During the 19th century, the concept of the “Grand Tour” became popular among the upper-class Europeans. It involved visiting culturally significant cities and sites, typically in Europe, as a way to broaden one’s knowledge and appreciation of art, history, and architecture. Popular destinations included Rome, Paris, Venice, and Athens.

Additionally, the expansion of the British Empire facilitated travel for both business and pleasure. The British established colonies and trading posts around the world, leading to increased opportunities for exploration and tourism. British citizens often traveled to their colonies in places like India, Africa, and the Caribbean for various purposes, including leisurely pursuits.

It is important to note that travel during this time was mostly limited to the affluent class, as it required financial resources and time. However, as the century progressed, the emergence of the middle class and advancements in transportation led to a gradual democratization of travel.

Overall, while tourism in the 19th century may have been different from what we see today, it was indeed a notable phenomenon that laid the foundation for the modern tourism industry.

When did tourism start to become widespread?

Tourism started to become widespread in the 19th century. This was made possible due to various factors such as advancements in transportation, industrialization, and the emergence of the middle class with disposable income and leisure time.

The development of railroads played a crucial role in facilitating travel during this period. The expansion of railway networks allowed people to travel faster, more comfortably, and at cheaper rates than ever before. This significantly increased the accessibility and affordability of travel for a larger segment of the population.

Additionally, the Industrial Revolution led to improved living conditions and increased wealth for many individuals. The growing middle class sought opportunities to escape the crowded cities and explore different parts of their countries or even venture abroad. The rise of guidebooks and travel literature further fueled the interest in tourism by providing information and recommendations on popular destinations.

The development of grand hotels and resorts also contributed to the growth of tourism in the 19th century. These establishments provided luxurious accommodations and amenities for tourists, attracting not only the wealthy but also those aspiring to experience a taste of the high life.

Furthermore, the notion of travel for leisure and relaxation became increasingly popular during this era. People began to view travel as a way to experience different cultures, landscapes, and natural wonders, as well as a means of personal growth and education.

Overall, the confluence of improved transportation, increased wealth and leisure time, the availability of travel resources, and shifting attitudes towards travel all contributed to the widespread emergence of tourism in the 19th century.

What was the beginning of tourism in the United States?

The beginning of tourism in the United States can be traced back to the early 19th century. During this time, a combination of factors contributed to the growth of tourism and the emergence of a leisure travel culture.

One important factor was the development of transportation infrastructure, particularly the expansion of the railroad network. The construction of railroads made it easier for people to travel long distances, opening up new destinations and making travel more accessible to the general public.

Another factor was the increasing prosperity and leisure time among the middle class. With the industrial revolution in full swing, more people had disposable income and free time to pursue recreational activities, including traveling for pleasure.

The advent of mass printing and improved communication networks also played a significant role in the growth of tourism. Travel literature and guidebooks became popular, providing people with information and inspiration on where to go and what to do when they arrived at their destination.

One notable event that marked the beginning of tourism in the United States was the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825. This canal connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, making it possible for people to journey through the heart of the country. The canal sparked interest in exploring the natural beauty and cultural heritage of America, leading to an increase in domestic tourism.

Additionally, the establishment of national parks and preservation of natural landscapes further fueled tourism. Places like Yosemite, Yellowstone, and Niagara Falls became popular tourist destinations, attracting visitors from around the country and even from abroad.

In summary, the beginning of tourism in the United States in the 19th century was influenced by factors such as improved transportation infrastructure, increased wealth and leisure time among the middle class, and the promotion of natural landscapes and cultural attractions. The opening of the Erie Canal and the establishment of national parks played significant roles in shaping the early tourism industry.

What is the history of tourism?

Tourism as we know it today has its roots in the 19th century. This era witnessed significant advancements in transportation, technology, and social changes that laid the foundation for modern tourism.

The Industrial Revolution , which began in the late 18th century and reached its peak in the 19th century, brought forth rapid industrialization and urbanization. It led to improved transportation infrastructure, such as railways and steamships, making travel more accessible and affordable for a larger population.

The Grand Tour , a traditional cultural journey undertaken by elite European young men in the 17th and 18th centuries, continued into the 19th century but transformed due to societal changes. With increased wealth and leisure time, an emerging middle class sought opportunities to explore and experience different cultures. The Grand Tour became popular among this newly affluent group, offering them a chance to broaden their knowledge and social connections.

The development of guidebooks , written by travelers and explorers, played a crucial role in promoting tourism in the 19th century. These guidebooks contained information on destinations, accommodations, landmarks, and cultural experiences, allowing tourists to plan and navigate their journeys more easily.

The rise of seaside resorts marked another significant aspect of 19th-century tourism. The growing interest in health and leisure activities led to the establishment of coastal resorts, where people would go for relaxation, fresh air, and recreational pursuits. Places like Brighton in England or Atlantic City in the United States became popular destinations, attracting tourists from near and far.

The expansion of colonial empires also influenced tourism during this period. European powers, such as Britain and France, established colonies across the globe, opening up new frontiers for exploration and adventure. Tourists from these colonial powers ventured into their far-flung territories, seeking exotic experiences and encountering diverse cultures.

Art and literature played a significant role in shaping the perception of travel and tourism in the 19th century. Famous artists, such as J.M.W. Turner and Claude Monet, captured picturesque landscapes that inspired wanderlust among viewers. Writers like Mark Twain and Charles Dickens portrayed travel experiences through their literary works, stimulating the imagination of readers and piquing their interest in exploration.

Overall, the 19th century laid the groundwork for modern tourism with advancements in transportation, the widening of social classes, the popularization of the Grand Tour, the creation of guidebooks, the growth of seaside resorts, the expansion of colonial empires, and the influence of art and literature. These developments set the stage for the further growth and evolution of tourism in the following centuries.

Frequently Asked Questions

How did the rise of industrialization in the 19th century impact tourism and travel.

The rise of industrialization in the 19th century had a significant impact on tourism and travel. With the advancements in technology, specifically in transportation and communication, travel became more accessible and efficient. The construction of railways and the invention of steamships made it easier for people to travel longer distances in shorter periods of time.

As a result, tourism began to flourish as more people could afford to travel for leisure. The improved infrastructure allowed for the development of tourist destinations , such as seaside resorts and national parks. These places were now easily accessible to a larger number of people, boosting the tourism industry.

Alongside transportation, technological advancements in communication, such as the invention of the telegraph, played a crucial role in shaping tourism and travel. Information about travel destinations, accommodations, and attractions became more widely available, allowing travelers to plan their trips more efficiently. Travel guides , maps, and brochures were published to provide detailed information about different tourist destinations.

Industrialization also led to changes in work patterns and an increase in disposable income for many people. This resulted in the emergence of the middle class, who now had the means and time to engage in leisure activities, including travel. The desire to explore new places, experience different cultures, and escape from the crowded and polluted cities drove the growth of tourism during this period.

Furthermore, the rise of industrialization led to the growth of the hospitality industry . The expansion of hotels, inns, and boarding houses provided accommodation options for travelers. These establishments catered to the needs and desires of tourists, offering various amenities and services.

Overall, the rise of industrialization in the 19th century revolutionized tourism and travel. It made travel more accessible, efficient, and appealing to a larger segment of society. The advancements in transportation, communication, and infrastructure played a pivotal role in shaping the tourism industry as we know it today.

What were the main modes of transportation used by tourists in the 19th century?

During the 19th century, tourists relied on various modes of transportation to explore new destinations. Horse-drawn carriages were a popular choice, particularly in urban areas where they provided a convenient and comfortable means of transportation. These carriages ranged from simple two-wheeled vehicles to more elaborate four-wheeled coaches, catering to different levels of comfort and affordability.

As technology advanced, steam-powered trains became a significant mode of transportation for tourists in the 19th century. The development of rail networks allowed travelers to cover long distances quickly and efficiently. This opened up new opportunities for exploration and tourism, enabling people to visit previously inaccessible locations.

Steamboats were another common form of transportation for tourists during this era. They offered a unique way to explore rivers, lakes, and coastal areas, providing both transportation and accommodations. Steamboats were often used for leisurely cruises along scenic routes, allowing tourists to enjoy picturesque landscapes while traveling.

For those seeking more adventurous travel experiences, stagecoaches and wagon trains were popular choices. These modes of transportation were commonly used in frontier regions, where roads were rough or non-existent. Stagecoaches were essentially large, sturdy carriages drawn by horses, while wagon trains consisted of multiple wagons pulled by teams of horses or oxen. These methods of travel allowed tourists to venture into unexplored territories with the necessary supplies.

As the century progressed, advancements in engineering led to the introduction of bicycles and early automobiles . While not as widely used as other modes of transportation, these innovations provided tourists with flexibility and independence in their travels. Bicycles offered a more active and affordable way to explore, while early automobiles provided a faster and more luxurious option for wealthier tourists.

During the 19th century, tourists utilized various modes of transportation, including horse-drawn carriages, steam-powered trains, steamboats, stagecoaches, wagon trains, bicycles, and early automobiles, to explore new destinations and embark on exciting travel adventures.

How did the growth of the middle class in the 19th century contribute to the development of mass tourism?

The growth of the middle class in the 19th century contributed significantly to the development of mass tourism.

As the Industrial Revolution took hold across Europe and North America, it brought forth technological advancements , such as steamships and railways, which made transportation more efficient and affordable. This allowed the middle class, who had experienced an increase in disposable income and leisure time, to embark on travels for pleasure .

The middle class, characterized by their desire for social mobility and cultural refinement, embraced the idea of exploring new destinations as a way to broaden their horizons and showcase their newfound status. They sought out experiences that were previously only accessible to the wealthy elite, such as visiting historical landmarks, museums, and natural wonders.

Furthermore, the growth of the middle class led to the establishment of mass production industries and the rise of mass media such as newspapers and magazines. These mediums played a crucial role in promoting and advertising travel opportunities, creating a sense of wanderlust among the general population. The dissemination of information about various destinations, attractions, and travel itineraries inspired individuals to venture beyond their localities and partake in the emerging trend of mass tourism.

The demand generated by the middle-class travelers prompted entrepreneurs to invest in the development of infrastructure, including the construction of hotels, resorts, and tourist attractions. Improved accommodations, transportation networks, and organized tours catered specifically to the needs and desires of the growing middle-class tourist market.

Overall, the growth of the middle class in the 19th century, fueled by economic prosperity and technological advancements, played a pivotal role in making mass tourism a widespread phenomenon. Their increased mobility, disposable income, and aspirations for social and cultural progression transformed travel from a luxury reserved for a privileged few into a mass-market experience accessible to a broader segment of society.

Tourism in the 19th century marked a significant shift in the way people from various social classes engaged with travel and leisure. With advancements in transportation, the accessibility of new destinations increased, allowing individuals to explore different cultures and landscapes.

The rise of the railway system played a crucial role in facilitating this growth, as it provided a faster and more convenient mode of transportation for both domestic and international travel. This development not only sparked a sense of wanderlust among the middle and upper classes but also opened up opportunities for individuals in lower socio-economic backgrounds to experience travel to a certain extent.

Moreover, the 19th century witnessed the emergence of guidebooks, travel agencies, and organized tours, which streamlined the travel experience by providing information, itineraries, and assistance to travelers. This commercialization of travel affected the perception of tourism , transforming it into a popular leisure activity rather than a pursuit limited to the privileged few.

However, it is important to recognize that tourism in the 19th century was predominantly enjoyed by those with sufficient time, wealth, and social status. The majority of travelers were from the upper echelons of society, seeking to gain cultural capital or engage in the popular pastime of the Grand Tour.

Overall, the 19th century witnessed an unprecedented growth in tourism, with increased accessibility, commercialization, and diversification of travel experiences. This era laid the foundation for modern-day tourism, shaping the industry and paving the way for future advancements.

As we reflect on the evolution of tourism in the 19th century, it is essential to acknowledge both its positive contributions and the inherent inequalities that were intertwined with the experience. By understanding the historical context, we can continue to shape the present and foster a more inclusive and sustainable future for tourism.

To learn more about this topic, we recommend some related articles:

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The History Hit Miscellany of Facts, Figures and Fascinating Finds

Thomas Cook and the Invention of Mass Tourism in Victorian Britain

Harry Sherrin

03 mar 2022.

After its inception in the mid-19th century, the travel agency Thomas Cook pioneered the development of mass tourism, launching the world’s first travel guidebooks, package holidays and round-the-world tours.

Thomas Cook grew from humble beginnings, carrying temperance activists to meetings by train in the English Midlands, into a vast multinational company. In the 19th century, its tours catered to increasingly wealthy Victorians during the height of the British Empire , successfully championing a travel revolution.

But in 2019, Thomas Cook declared bankruptcy. It was the world’s oldest and longest-serving tour operator at the time, having existed for more than a century and a half and endured world wars, economic crises and the rise of the internet.

Here’s the story of Thomas Cook and the advent of global mass tourism.

Temperance trips

Thomas Cook (1808-1892), a devout Christian and advocate of the temperance movement, organised a one-day rail excursion for a temperance meeting in 1841. The trip, on 5 July, involved a train journey between Leicester and Loughborough, courtesy of an arrangement with the Midland Counties Railway Company.

Cook continued this practice over the following years, organising railway journeys for temperance activist groups around the Midlands of England. In 1845, he organised his first for-profit excursion, in the form of a trip to Liverpool for passengers from three locations – Derby, Nottingham and Leicester.

For this tour, Cook crafted a passengers’ handbook, now widely considered a precursor to the popular travel guidebook that would be produced to accompany travel excursions for decades to follow.

Branching out to Europe

English tourist agent Thomas Cook and party in the ruins of Pompeii, Easter 1868. Cook is seated on the ground, just to right of center, in this carte-de-visite photograph.

Image Credit: Granger Historical Picture Archive / Alamy Stock Photo

By the 1850s, Cook had his sights set further afield than England. For the Paris Exposition of 1855 , for example, he organised guided trips from Leicester to Calais.

That same year, he also oversaw international ‘package’ tours, carrying parties from England to various cities in Europe, including Brussels, Strasbourg, Cologne and Paris . These excursions offered passengers everything needed to sustain them on their journeys, including transport, accommodation and meals.

By the 1860s, Cook’s sporadic temperance trips had grown into a profitable mass tourism operation – thought to be the first in global history. In response to his newfound success, Cook opened his first high-street store in London’s Fleet Street in 1865.

That same year, the London Underground opened as the first subterranean railway in the world. London was the most populous city on the planet at the time, and the enterprises of the British Empire saw wealth pouring into mainland Britain. With this came disposable income and, by extension, more Britons willing to spend large sums on international holidays.

For Cook, business was booming.

Going global

After tackling Europe, Thomas Cook went global. Now a father-son business comprising Thomas Cook and his son, John Mason Cook, the tour agency launched its first US tour in 1866. John Mason guided it personally.

A few years later, Thomas Cook escorted passengers on the company’s first trip to North Africa and the Middle East, stopping in Egypt and Palestine.

Tourism for Britons at the time was intimately tied to the endeavours of the British Empire. As British armies entered Egypt and Sudan in the late 19th century, so too did tourists, traders, teachers and missionaries, eager to capitalise on the newfound accessibility of far-flung nations and the relative safety offered by the presence of British forces there.

Thomas Cook and Son was even responsible for delivering military personnel and mail to British Egypt in the late 19th century.

1872 marked a huge moment in the history of Thomas Cook and indeed global tourism. That year, Thomas Cook escorted the first known round-the-world tour. The lengthy excursion, which lasted more than 200 days and covered nearly 30,000 miles, was targeted at wealthy Victorians – those with the time, funds and proclivity to see the world’s many cultures.

In that decade, Thomas Cook also helped invent the traveler’s cheque: the company offered a ‘Circular Note’ to its passengers which could be exchanged for currency around the world.

In the 1920s, Thomas Cook and Son launched the first-known tour through Africa. The excursion lasted some 5 months and took passengers from Cairo in Egypt down to the Cape of Good Hope.

Conquering air and sea

John Mason Cook took over primary leadership of the company in the 1870s, overseeing its continued expansion and the opening of various new offices around the world.

With this expansion came the launching of Thomas Cook’s company-owned steamers in the late 19th century. In 1886, a fleet of luxury steamers opened to passengers, offering cruises along the Nile.

A Thomas Cook flyer from 1922 advertising cruises down the Nile. This kind of travel has been immortalised in works such as ‘Death on the Nile’ by Agatha Christie.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Thomas Cook eventually took to the skies in the 1920s, overseeing its first guided tour involving air travel in 1927. The trip carried 6 passengers from New York to Chicago, and also included accommodation and tickets for a Chicago boxing fight.

Into the modern era

During World War Two , Thomas Cook was briefly enlisted to assist with the ‘enemy mail service’, essentially the covert delivery of post from Allied regions to occupied territories.

The company went on to change hands several times during the 20th century, yet it managed to stay afloat despite various buyouts, economic crises and the rise of online travel agents.

In 2019, Thomas Cook was handed a bill of some £200 million by the Royal Bank of Scotland and other financial institutions. Unable to source the funds, the company declared bankruptcy.

At the time, Thomas Cook was responsible for more than 150,000 holiday-goers abroad. When the company collapsed, new arrangements had to be made to return every stranded customer home. The UK Civil Aviation Authority, which assisted with the repatriation efforts, called it the largest-ever peacetime repatriation in British history.

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• Historical Background on Traveling in the Early 19th Century

A brief summary of traveling and the impact of changing technology in the early nineteenth-century.

Travel in the early nineteenth century was so much slower and more difficult than it is today that it is not easy to remember that it was also a time of significant change and improvement. In New England in 1790, vehicles were few, roads were generally rutted and rudimentary, and traveling any distance was both slow and difficult. Children and poorer adults walked everywhere, and only a minority of farmers had horses and wagons. Many loads of freight were drawn not by horses but by much slower-moving oxen. With a good horse, it took from four to six days, depending on the weather, to travel from Boston to New York. And this was on the best roads, which ran between major cities along the coast. Inland, the roads were even worse, turning to impassable mud when it rained or to choking dust when the weather was dry.

But beginning around 1790, a series of changes was beginning that historians have called “The Transportation Revolution.” Americans—and New Englanders in particular—rebuilt and vastly extended their roads. More than 3,700 miles of turnpikes, or toll roads, were built in New England between 1790 and 1820. Continuing through the 1840s, many thousands of miles of improved county and town roads were constructed as well. The new roads were far better constructed and maintained, and allowed for much faster travel. In response, the number of vehicles on the roads increased rapidly, far faster than population. It was noted in 1830 that Americans were driving a “multitudinous generation of travelling vehicles” that had been “totally unknown” in the 1790s. Stagecoach lines had spread across the Northeastern states, using continual relays, or “stages,” of fresh horses spaced out every 40 miles or so. They made travel, if not enjoyable, at least faster, less expensive, and less perilous than it had ever been. The 1830s had reduced the travel time between Boston and New York to a day and a half. Good roads and stages extended across southern New England, the lower Hudson Valley in New York, and southeastern Pennsylvania.

The most radical changes in the speed, scale and experience of traveling came with the application of newly emerging transportation technologies—the railroad, the steamboat, and the building of canals—to American conditions. Beginning with Robert Fulton’s Clermont, which successfully made the journey up the Hudson from New York City to Albany in 1807, Americans developed steamboats to ply both the deeper eastern rivers and the shallower western ones. Although steamboats were sometimes dangerously prone to fires and boiler explosions, they traveled faster, met tighter schedules and could travel against the river current far more effectively than rafts and barges. Steamboats vastly expanded passenger travel on the rivers and carried much higher value cargo upstream.

Americans turned as well to the massive infrastructure project of canal building, as the British had done decades earlier. Canals promised far less expensive transportation of farm produce, manufactured goods and passengers, but it was often difficult for them to return profits to their investors. The Erie Canal, traversing the breadth of New York State to connect Albany and Buffalo in 1825, was the great success among American canals. It opened up an enormous agricultural hinterland for trade with New York City and New England. In New England, New York and Pennsylvania, Americans created a vast system of inland waterways that significantly reduced transportation costs, although none of them matched the success of the Erie.

After 1830, the railroad or, as most Americans at that time said, the “Rail Way,” emerged as the most dramatic of the new technologies of transportation. Its speed and power was unprecedented. With good weather, a good road and rested horses, a stagecoach might manage eight or nine miles an hour. The small locomotives of the 1830s, pulling a handful of cars over uneven track, could travel at fifteen to twenty miles an hour. This was twice as fast, over long distances, as anything Americans had previously experienced. By 1840, 3000 miles of railroad track had been laid down, most of it concentrated in the Northeast. This meant that travel between directly connected cities could be much faster than before; a trip between Boston and Worcester now took less than 2 hours, and travelers could reach New York City from Boston in less than a day, using both coastal steamship and railway.

But before 1840 only a relatively small minority of Americans had felt its impact, and railway travel was both noisy (from the grating and squealing of iron wheels on the tracks) and dirty (from showers of ash and cinders from wood-burning locomotives). In the next twenty years the railroad, growing ever faster, more powerful and more efficient, would become America’s dominant mode of transportation east of the Mississippi, sweeping away the stage lines and even making some of the canals obsolete.

The years between 1790 and 1840 saw a true revolution in transportation even before the coming of the railroad. By 1840, transportation costs had been greatly reduced and travel had become faster by a factor of 5 or more. These changes made possible America’s first “Industrial Revolution,” the widespread development of commercial agriculture in the Midwest, and a national system of markets and the distribution of goods. Many ordinary Americans could now become travelers for pleasure and even the pathways of westward migration had become much faster and safer.

Copyright: Old Sturbridge Inc.

• The American Revolution
• Indian Removal
• Isaiah Thomas - Patriot Printer
• Lesson Plans
• Aspects of the Changing Status of New England Women
• Dining Out in the 1830's
• Early 19th Century Attitudes Toward Women and Their Roles
• Early Taverns and the Law
• Gathering Places
• Roads and Travel in New England 1790-1840
• The Blackstone Canal: Artery to the Heart of the Commonwealth
• The Debit Economy of 1830s New England
• Where Did Women Work on New England Farms?
• Temperance Reform in the Early 19th Century
• The Dred Scott Decision
• The Kansas-Nebraska Act and Bleeding Kansas
• The Second Great Awakening and the Age of Reform
• War of 1812 and the Hartford Convention
• Westward Expansion

In Development

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• The Civil War

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How American Tourism Began

American tourism took the scenic route over the course of the twentieth century. A growing middle class and car ownership helped.

This summer, will you travel to a beach , a national park , or maybe a local campground ? Today, trips like these are often within reach of the average American family. But that’s a relatively new development. In a paper for The Journal of Economic History , Thomas Weiss explains how tourism went from an uncommon pastime for elites to a thoroughly middle-class activity .

Weiss writes that, in general, the first European settlers in America were simply too busy eking out a living to take a vacation. Besides, Puritans and Anglican values discouraged anything even remotely like lying on a beach drinking a margarita. And yet, as early as the 1660s, some Americans were traveling for relaxation, often heading to spas and mineral springs. Among those taking the waters in Virginia a century later was George Washington. Although people claimed the point was to cure an ailment or maintain their health, Weiss writers that spa trips were clearly a “fashionable indulgence.”

In the early nineteenth century, a few scenic destinations became hot spots for tourism, most notably Niagara Falls. In fact, by the 1860s it was so popular that travelers complained that souvenir sellers and aggressive guides had spoiled the place. Still, Weiss estimates that only around 1 percent of the nation’s population visited a spa or other tourist destination in 1860.

Tourism started to become more popular after the Civil War, thanks largely to the development of railroads, though it remained an elite activity. Trains brought travelers to the Jersey Shore and the Florida Coast, and hotels blossomed from Coney Island to San Francisco. Urban Americans headed to the mountains for camping trips, while others explored the restaurants and sights of the major cities. Because transportation was slow and required advance planning, tourists didn’t take quick overnight trips. Vacations meant an extended stay.

That changed in the early twentieth century as cars began populating the landscape. Developers built roadside camps, then cabins and hotels. Small, local attractions popped up everywhere, and major destinations benefited from auto travel. In 1916, around 30,000 visitors traveled to Yellowstone National Park , the majority coming by train. Two decades later, 409,000 people arrived at the park in cars.

By 1930, Weiss writes, more than 5 percent of the population traveled to a well-known tourist attraction each year, and many more clearly stopped at more obscure destinations. The notion of taking vacations had begun to extend into the middle class.

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The basic form of tourism may have been established by World War II, but the scale of the activity changed dramatically in the post-war years. The growth of car ownership, rising middle-class wealth, newly established paid vacation benefits for many workers, and the advent of air travel all contributed to a tourism boom.

And that boom continues today. This year, AAA says a third of Americans will take a family vacation. Of course, that still means two thirds of us won’t. As a recent New York Times story pointed out, many families in the country can’t afford to take time off of work, or to send the kids to a summer camp. To some extent, vacations remain an elite activity.

Read about Ken Ilgunas’s “sort of illegal” hike across the Heartland in “ Backpacking Across ‘Stand Your Ground’ Territory ” on Public Books.

Editor’s note: This page was updated to fix the broken link to “Backpacking Across ‘Stand Your Ground’ Territory.”

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1 Tourist and Traveller in the Network of Nineteenth-Century Travel

• Published: March 1993
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This chapter characterizes tourists and travellers in Europe in 19th century travel. It contends that travel acquires its special value by virtue of its differential relationship with tourism and suggests that these two together make up a binary opposition fundamental to and characteristics of modern culture. This chapter also traces the emergence of this opposition in light of some technological, social, and bureaucratic-administrative developments from the 18th through the 19th century.

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How the Victorians invented the ‘staycation’

Lecturer in Victorian literature and culture, University of Bristol

Disclosure statement

Joan Passey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Bristol provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation UK.

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Holidays feel like an important tonic after such a tough year. While international travel is possible, it’s not exactly easy, so many are choosing to stay closer to home, opting for a “staycation”. This year holidaymakers are discovering the treasures of the UK’s coast and the rugged beauty of its landscapes.

Domestic tourism as we know it began in the 19th century when the idea of the holiday was just becoming popularised. Expanding railways and changing work practices meant people had more leisure time to dedicate to travelling. International travel was becoming easier but wasn’t accessible to all, so the Victorians chose to spend this newfound “free” time in the UK.

This gave way to the creation of hot new holiday destinations, mostly on the UK’s coast. Great British seaside towns, from Bournemouth to Brighton, enticed people with promises of fun, sea and clean air – many of the things that continue to lure people today.

The great summer holiday as we know it was conceived by the Victorians . The 19th century saw the industrial revolution and the rise of industrial capitalism, where factories were thriving and work structures were more clearly and rigorously defined and delineated. This led to the emergence of administrative professions, like clerks, and an emerging middle class .

There was more structured working time , including shift work in factories and time off on Sundays. As a result, working-class people had leisure time to use, and by the 1890s some skilled workers had half days on Saturdays, leading to the birth of the “ weekend ” – though this was not formalised until much later in the 20th century.

In 1871 the Bank Holidays Act was passed. This designated certain days as holidays on which banks closed, though, over the years, more businesses began observing these days off work. Before 1830, banks closed only on the 40 saints’ days of the year, though by 1834 this was just four days, including Christmas day. From 1871, any day could be declared a bank holiday, not just saints’ days.

These new leisure hours were used to explore the surrounding countryside and seaside as cities expanded at exponential rates . The working class took day trips and the wealthy stayed in hotels along the coast, many of which still stand today.

Travel was previously only accessible to the wealthy, but an expanding rail network meant that travel across Britain was easier, faster, cheaper and more accessible than ever before. The railway boom began in the 1840s , and by 1850, 6,000 miles of track had been laid and 18,000 by 1880. This meant that smaller towns were connected, as well as big cities.

The rise of mass print literature went hand in hand with the rise of the railway – British train station stalwart WH Smith was established to sell cheap books to train passengers, a brand new audience, as it was previously too bumpy to read on a carriage or cart.

That a greater variety of people could access the margins of the country than ever before caused a lot of anxiety among the upper classes. Poet William Wordsworth famously protested the expansion of the rail into the Lake District, the site that inspired some of his most famous poems, as he thought its beauty would be tainted and that the poor did not have the capacity to appreciate its sublimity.

There was also anxiety that the railway and encroaching tourists would spoil seemingly untouched regions. Protesters in Cornwall thought tourism would dilute the country’s particular identity, language, history and culture. This is not dissimilar to anxieties about tourists buying holiday homes in Wales and Cornwall today.

Tourism is born

An emerging tourist industry meant emerging tourist boards eager to promote UK travel over increasingly accessible foreign travel. By 1870, the Great Eastern Railway was publishing advertisements for “A Day at the Seaside”.

Places in the UK were sold as being somewhat exotic or foreign – Cornwall was called “the Cornish riviera” and maps of Cornwall were flipped upside down and displayed next to maps of Italy to show their similarities.

As a result, sunny seaside resorts were developed by investors – Bournemouth, Brighton, Weston-super-Mare and Blackpool, to name a few. Their influence can still be seen in finely wrought piers, promenades and pavilions of these seaside towns, which have gained renewed popularity during the COVID pandemic.

As seaside getaways became popular, many of the things we associate with the British summer holiday came to be, including deckchairs, ice-cream, donkey rides, Punch and Judy shows (violent puppet shows primarily aimed at children), rock (a hard sugar candy), and games arcades.

Ice-cream became very popular in the 19th century and was a welcome cool treat on summer beaches, as the Victorians developed icehouses (essentially deep wells) to store ice and keep it cool. Queen Victoria had her preferred clear ice imported from Massachussets, USA . Many popular ice-cream flavours might feel unfamiliar to us today, such as cucumber ice-cream.

The tourism that emerged, however, wasn’t always sunshine and deckchairs – one of the first Thomas Cook holiday packages in the 19th century was a railway journey to Bodmin Jail where passengers could look out of the window to witness hangings from the comfort of their own carriage.

While a day out to see hangings or a scoop of cucumber ice-cream may not be quite up modern holiday seekers’ street, many of the things that the Victorians popularised remain a huge part of a British holiday today. So, while enjoying a stick of rock or a game on the pier, spare a thought for the pioneering Victorians who made some of the best bits of your much-needed holiday possible.

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Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history

ISSN 1749-8155

Leisure, Travel and Mass Culture – The History of Tourism

Leisure, Travel and Mass Culture – The History of Tourism is an online archive of tourism resources, curated by Adam Matthew Digital. The site is beautifully presented and easy to access for users. Like all good tourism attractions, it is welcoming to visitors, who will be curious to explore its enticing content. The database is a delightful cornucopia of tourism and travel related source materials, produced during the period from the mid-18th century to the present, although most items come from the period between the mid-19th century and the dawn of the era of mass tourism in the 20th century. Although the collection will be invaluable to serious students and researchers in tourism and its history, it is also entertaining and full of fascinating surprises when approached in a serendipitous sort of way through browsing.

A key feature of the Leisure, Travel and Mass Culture – The History of Tourism website is the collection of scanned images of ephemera it makes accessible to researchers by acting as a gateway to other archive and library collections. These are arranged into themes: Accommodation, Hospitality and Entertainment; Beachfront: Seaside and Coastal Destinations; Children and Families; The Great Outdoors; Health and Medical Travel; Historical, Cultural or Religious tourism; International Relations; Package Tours, Cruises and Organised Travel; Planning and Business; Road, Rail and Air Travel; Urban Tours and City Breaks; Women and Tourism. Among the ephemera available for viewing in the database are railway, shipping and airline advertisements as well as resort posters and guides plus promotional material for individual tourist attractions such as Blackpool’s Winter Gardens. These give an insight into the relationship between tourism and popular culture, for instance there is a programme for the Blackpool Tower and Winter Gardens from 1941 which shows that despite the war, the theatres and entertainment venues of the resort continued to offer a full season’s programme. In the Grand Theatre the plays Once a Crook and Lady Behave were being shown. The New Opera House was presenting a show called Hullabaloo starring Max Wall and Arthur Brough and featuring the ‘Hullabalovelies’, presumably a troupe of singing and dancing chorus girls. Elsewhere in Blackpool, the film The Thief of Bagdad , starring Conrad Veidt was being shown at the Palace Picture Pavilion. There is a wealth of material from Blackpool but little from other important resorts, equally deserving of study or comparison with the Lancashire resort. This is explained as Blackpool Council’s Central Library Local History Centre is a participator in this online archive project. It is to be hoped that other resorts’ archives join the project soon and share some of their collections online.

Items in the collection come from around the world and are not just from Britain and the United States although these are where participating organisations are based. As would be expected, there is a great deal of British and American material but there are also items from more unusual destinations, such as Peru, Honolulu, Oahu and New Zealand. They include some items written in French, German and Spanish, for instance a German brochure from 1934 offered holidays to the Republic of Spain, with accommodation at Alicante. The range of holiday and tourism material available for viewing on the website is quite astonishing. There is a series of Thomas Cook’s magazines: Cook’s Excursionist and Home and Foreign Tourist Advertiser from the 1870s, The Traveller’s Gazette and The American Traveler’s Gazette from the first half of the 20th century, all essential references for tourism historians. Specialist travel is featured, for example Battlefield tours to Waterloo and the trenches of the First World War in Europe and to Gettysburg, Yorktown Knoxville, Antietum and Vicksburg in America. Christmas breaks, coach tours, railway guides and holidays are all represented among the materials. Visitors to the site can also see the arrangements made by Thomas Cook for travellers to the Alps for winter sports in the company’s brochures which were issued between 1908 and the 1950s. Travelling by rail with sleeping and dining cars to ensure a comfortable journey, St Moritz could be reached in just 24 hours for £11 return, including hotel accommodation in 1908. For the United States there are guides to reaching ski resorts in the Rockies by car, some produced by oil and petrol company Conoco. All these documents are internally searchable themselves. A particularly useful and unexpected feature was the links to external websites and databases, including the South Tyrol Tourism Museum, the John Murray Archive which contains material about explorers, Wisconsin Historical Society and the World Tourism Organization eLibrary.

The site not only gives access to printed ephemera but to moving images too. The collection of films is a real treat. There are short films from the Thomas Cook and Poly Tours archives, promoting Austria, coach tours of Switzerland and of the Italian Lakes, which provided travellers with the ‘thrill of travel without any drawbacks, and the cosy feeling of being at home’. A particular curiosity is a film compilation of some Caravan and Camping Club Tours in the 1920s and 1930s, to Austria, Turkey, Italy and Nazi Germany.

The best and biggest surprise in the collection was the series of tourism- and holiday-related documents from the British government’s Board of Trade, physically stored in the National Archive but accessible through the gateway of the AMD Leisure, Travel and Mass Culture – The History of Tourism website. These include papers from the years immediately following the Second World War, dealing with the problems of re-opening British tourist traffic with various European countries, and the possibility of exchange arrangements which would solve the problem of international currency conversion rates and not have an adverse effect on the balance of payments during the years of post-war austerity. This hand-written document shows how there was a genuine feeling among government ministers in the Cabinet that in relation to overseas tourism, ‘something ought to be done about it!’ The government was apparently ‘under fire from the more civilised elements of the community’, a quaintly old-fashioned use of language to describe the middle-classes which reflects the British class system at the time, to re-establish foreign travel after the war had made tourism abroad out of the question. To assist the tourism industry and to promote holidays in Britain, the Board of Trade was also investigating ways of staggering demand across the summer months by extending the season, removing some of the pressures of the peak demand period of August and lowering costs to holidaymakers..

What was surprising about the website was the lack of material relating to the package holiday or inclusive tour industry. The pioneers of mass tourism to the Mediterranean, Skytours, Horizon and Clarksons, are not represented in the database at all. Thomas Cook’s brochures from the 1950s and 1960s show a different kind of inclusive tour to the now familiar package holidays, to beach resorts offering travel by ferry, coach or train to places such as Biarritz, Nice and the coastal towns of Brittany, city breaks to Paris or coach tours of Switzerland based in Interlaken or Grindelwald, St Moritz, Lugano or Montreux. Some holidays offered air travel as a more expensive alternative to rail. Now massively popular, Spain featured rarely in the brochures of the 1950s as a visa was necessary to travel there and restrictions existed caused by the Aviation Acts that ruled that no inclusive tour could cost less than the price of a scheduled flight on the nationalised flag-carrying airlines, BEA and BOAC. This meant that Mediterranean holidays were impractical for most holidaymakers. This was to change when Franco relaxed the requirement for travellers to have visas to visit Spain and package holiday companies were able to develop a product that included cheap charter flights, mass-produced hotels, excursions and entertainment at a single price, affordable to a wider market than previously as skilled working- and middle-class disposable incomes rose during the 1960s.

Another important and popular aspect of tourism in the 20th century was the holiday camp but searching the site for Butlin’s, Pontin’s or Warner’s proved fruitless. These were the big three holiday camp businesses that students and researchers of this kind of holiday will surely want to investigate.

The Chronological Timeline feature of the site offers brief information or factoids about a very diverse range of tourism-related events beginning in 1756 with the reopening to the public of the Dyrehavsbakken in Denmark by Frederick V, the world’s oldest operating amusement park, first opened in 1583. It concludes with the opening of Disneyland Shanghai in 2016 and Las Vegas setting a record number of 42.3 million visitors during the same year. Other interesting snippets of knowledge in the Chronology section include the fact that the first known picture postcard was sent from London by Theodore Hook in 1840; that in 1862 Margate Town Council decreed that all bathers wear swimming costumes and that there should be no less than 60 feet between male and female bathing machines; New Zealand became the first country to have a dedicated government Department of Tourist and Health Resorts in 1901; the ‘99’ Flake was produced by Cadbury especially for ice creams in 1930; in 1952 the first Holiday Inn opened near Memphis; between 1956 and 1959 the Balearic Islands saw an increase in tourism due to simplification of customs and visa procedures and a relaxing of currency regulations. There seems to be fewer events recorded on the Timeline during the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s which is surprising as this period saw the growth of mass tourism in the developed world with the near-universal introduction of holidays with pay, greater access to a wider range of international tourism destinations through cheaper air travel, deregulation of the travel industry and the appearance of budget airlines. There also seems to be few events mentioned in the Timeline for spa and sanatorium tourism, despite there being an option to search for Health and Medical facts: Bath in England, with its heyday in the 18th and early 19th centuries, does not get a mention until 1916 when there were new additions to the Royal Baths there. Also disappointing is the fruitless search for Winter Sports and only four results for Skiing as a search term in the Chronology, despite their importance to winter holidaymaking. This is probably a work in progress which will be expanded and added to over time.

Exploring this online archive was both entertaining and informative. The site provides users with a facility to save items of interest they discover in their own personal file of documents and also a Lightbox feature to create slideshows using the materials. This archive is genuinely innovative and potential users should be grateful to the participating libraries and archives that have scanned and shared their abundant but geographically dispersed tourism related texts, ephemera and images. Materials are available to researchers anywhere in the world, removing the need to travel to distant archives and libraries. Participating libraries in Britain to which Leisure, Travel and Mass Culture – The History of Tourism acts as a gateway are Blackpool, Thomas Cook Archives, The National Archives and the University of Westminster. In the United States the participating institutions are Brooklyn Historical Society, California Historical Society, The Camping and Caravanning Club, John W. Hartman Center at Duke University, George A. Smathers Libraries at the University of Florida, Loyola University in New Orleans, Massachusetts Historical Society, Michigan State University, New Hampshire Historical Libraries, the Newberry in Chicago, and the New York Academy of Medicine. As an online resource, presumably this archive will be added to over time, and hopefully the current omissions from the collection will be remedied in the future as more participants share their material by making it accessible online as part of this database or through integrated links.

With Leisure, Travel and Mass Culture – The History of Tourism , Adam Matthew Digital have provided access to a fascinating collection of documents, invaluable sources for researchers, students and teachers of travel and tourism but also of cultural studies and history as well as marketing, graphic design and advertising. It is also enjoyable just to browse and explore the database content with no clear educational or research aim, purely for the pleasure it can bring to a spare hour or two. After all, much of the psychological benefits of travel and tourism come from the anticipation of exploring new environments and looking back on the experience for years to come. This collection can provide these pleasurable experiences vicariously.

Here’s How Tourism Worked in the 1860s

One of the only constants: Paris is popular.

Mary Beth Griggs

In the 21st century, the average U.S. citizen travels about 16,000 miles a year. In 1900, the average American only traveled 340 miles. In the late 1800s, most hotels didn't have toilets. And, however bad traveling by bus might seem, it is infinitely better than traveling for days in a bumpy stage coach.

In  150 Years of Travel , the people at  HotelClub  (“a global online accommodation community for travelers in the know”) compare tourism as we know it today with the industry at its origins. The company suggests that, with the advent of guidebooks, photography and all inclusive trips, modern tourism began in the 1860s. But traveling before it was cool (or, at least, quick and readily available to the masses) wasn’t always a picnic.  From io9 :

[The infographic] covers everything from common complaints, cost, time, currency, and technology. They even gathered predictions for what travel will look like in the future. Among the bits of information included in the inforgraphic [sic] is that Victorian British complained about the lack of people speaking English, with their solution being that more Europeans speak it. According to the statistics, 51% of the EU now speaks English.

Language aside, there were a few pluses to being a pioneering tourist. At least in Britain, a passport was not required to enter or leave the country. (The rest of Europe was not so lackadaisical with borders.) (You can see the rest here .)

Tourists' destiantions have changed, too. We're more likely to go to big cities, like New York or London, than places like Niagara Falls or Bath, England. The only place that has retained its popularity? Paris.

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Mary Beth Griggs is a freelance science journalist based in New York City.

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

Thomas Cook: the father of modern tourism – archive, 1958

22 November 1958: Tracing the career of Thomas Cook: from his devotion to temperance work to his foundation of the company that would become the largest travel company in the world

Few people in these sophisticated times would claim for travel all the virtues once believed to be inherent in it. But it remains, for those who have the leisure and money, a fine way of putting in the time. To-day it is a primary source of income for so many countries that it is hard to imagine what they did before Thomas Cook came on the scene.

Cook, who was born 150 years ago to-day, was not content to be merely the father of modern tourism: he was a newspaper reporter as well. During his tours, when he was ever on the look-out for cheaper transport, better accommodation, and “points of interest,” he sent to some local papers in Leicester and to the “Times” assorted letters to the editor, and even a few commissioned articles, describing the scenic wonders along the route.

This aspiration towards higher things was evident, too, in his devoted temperance work, which was the original cause of his becoming interested in popular travel. For a fare of one shilling he had arranged in 1841 for 570 supporters to travel by open rail carriage from Leicester to Loughborough to attend a temperance meeting. Four years later he arranged a rail trip from Leicester, Nottingham, and Derby to Liverpool, and he was really in the tourist business.

Song for the tunnel

The brochure produced for this rail trip contained a song written by a J. Bradshawe Walker, of Leeds, for the edification of the customers who were to sing it before entering the Summit Tunnel. The closing lines ran:

“But onward, snorting wild, Like a monster in its glee, The locomotive flies with us, A passing sketch to see.”

The following year – 1846 – saw the first of Cook’s Scottish tours, which were to be the backbone of his business for some decades. The Scottish hosts showed enthusiasm for the English visitors: guns were fired in welcome as the train drew into the Glasgow station, bands played, and speeches were made. Could this unlikely affection for the English have sprung from a shrewd Scots appreciation of being in early on a good thing? Or had Cook sent on ahead his public relations men?

In 1866 Thomas Cook produced a book for the benefit of Sassenachs crossing the Border for the first time. The book was called Cook’s Scottish Tourist: Practical Directory: A Guide To the Principal Tourist Routes, Conveyances And Special Ticket Arrangements, Sanctioned By Railway, Steamboat And Coach Companies Commanding The Highland Excursion Traffic. One chapter heading ran: “Is It Safe For Ladies To Join In Highland Tours?” The answer was reassuring. The majority of tourists during the past twenty years had been ladies, all of whom had had a fine. safe time.

During the same period the tourists’ path had been beaten by Cook to North Wales, the Isle of Man, and Ireland, and he was ready to see what the Continent had to offer. The first tentative steps were trips from Leicester (which continued to be his headquarters until 1865, when he opened a large central office in Fleet Street) to Calais for people wanting to attend the Paris Exhibition in 1855.

The next year he advertised “a grand circular tour of the Continent,” which was to cover Antwerp, Brussels, Cologne, Frankfurt, Heidelberg, Baden-Baden, Strasbourg, and Paris. Then followed Swiss tours and Italian tours, and in 1865 Cook crossed the Atlantic to make excursion arrangements there.

Round the world

Cook completed his own first trip round the world in 1873, and was able to offer in the same year a planned world tour, from London to London, for only 200 guineas or 1.050 gold dollars. By this time his son, John Mason Cook, was active in the business, travelling in the years between 1866 and 1873 376,000 miles.

Thomas Cook and Son were one of the first firms to use, in the 1870s, travellers’ cheques, which they called “circular notes”; and rather earlier they introduced hotel coupons which gave bearers the right to demand accommodation at any hotel in the scheme. In days when Foreign Office officials and diplomatists had an easier time, it was left to Cooks to arrange General Gordon’s trip to the Sudan in 1884. He tendered to the company his “thanks for the admirable manner in which we have been treated while on your steamers.”

Now the company which Cook founded is the largest travel agency in the world. It became a private limited liability company in 1924, and in 1948 its shares, which were then held by railway companies, were acquired by the British Transport Commission.

• From the Guardian archive
• Thomas Cook

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18th Century Grand Tour of Europe

The Travels of European Twenty-Somethings

Print Collector/Getty Images 

• Key Figures & Milestones
• Physical Geography
• Political Geography
• Country Information
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• M.A., Geography, California State University - Northridge
• B.A., Geography, University of California - Davis

The French Revolution marked the end of a spectacular period of travel and enlightenment for European youth, particularly from England. Young English elites of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries often spent two to four years touring around Europe in an effort to broaden their horizons and learn about language , architecture , geography, and culture in an experience known as the Grand Tour.

The Grand Tour, which didn't come to an end until the close of the eighteenth century, began in the sixteenth century and gained popularity during the seventeenth century. Read to find out what started this event and what the typical Tour entailed.

Origins of the Grand Tour

Privileged young graduates of sixteenth-century Europe pioneered a trend wherein they traveled across the continent in search of art and cultural experiences upon their graduation. This practice, which grew to be wildly popular, became known as the Grand Tour, a term introduced by Richard Lassels in his 1670 book Voyage to Italy . Specialty guidebooks, tour guides, and other aspects of the tourist industry were developed during this time to meet the needs of wealthy 20-something male and female travelers and their tutors as they explored the European continent.

These young, classically-educated Tourists were affluent enough to fund multiple years abroad for themselves and they took full advantage of this. They carried letters of reference and introduction with them as they departed from southern England in order to communicate with and learn from people they met in other countries. Some Tourists sought to continue their education and broaden their horizons while abroad, some were just after fun and leisurely travels, but most desired a combination of both.

Navigating Europe

A typical journey through Europe was long and winding with many stops along the way. London was commonly used as a starting point and the Tour was usually kicked off with a difficult trip across the English Channel.

Crossing the English Channel

The most common route across the English Channel, La Manche, was made from Dover to Calais, France—this is now the path of the Channel Tunnel. A trip from Dover across the Channel to Calais and finally into Paris customarily took three days. After all, crossing the wide channel was and is not easy. Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Tourists risked seasickness, illness, and even shipwreck on this first leg of travel.

Compulsory Stops

Grand Tourists were primarily interested in visiting cities that were considered major centers of culture at the time, so Paris, Rome, and Venice were not to be missed. Florence and Naples were also popular destinations but were regarded as more optional than the aforementioned cities.

The average Grand Tourist traveled from city to city, usually spending weeks in smaller cities and up to several months in the three major ones. Paris, France was the most popular stop of the Grand Tour for its cultural, architectural, and political influence. It was also popular because most young British elite already spoke French, a prominent language in classical literature and other studies, and travel through and to this city was relatively easy. For many English citizens, Paris was the most impressive place visited.

Getting to Italy

From Paris, many Tourists proceeded across the Alps or took a boat on the Mediterranean Sea to get to Italy, another essential stopping point. For those who made their way across the Alps, Turin was the first Italian city they'd come to and some remained here while others simply passed through on their way to Rome or Venice.

Rome was initially the southernmost point of travel. However, when excavations of Herculaneum (1738) and Pompeii (1748) began, these two sites were added as major destinations on the Grand Tour.

Features of the Grand Tour

The vast majority of Tourists took part in similar activities during their exploration with art at the center of it all. Once a Tourist arrived at a destination, they would seek housing and settle in for anywhere from weeks to months, even years. Though certainly not an overly trying experience for most, the Grand Tour presented a unique set of challenges for travelers to overcome.

While the original purpose of the Grand Tour was educational, a great deal of time was spent on much more frivolous pursuits. Among these were drinking, gambling, and intimate encounters—some Tourists regarded their travels as an opportunity to indulge in promiscuity with little consequence. Journals and sketches that were supposed to be completed during the Tour were left blank more often than not.

Visiting French and Italian royalty as well as British diplomats was a common recreation during the Tour. The young men and women that participated wanted to return home with stories to tell and meeting famous or otherwise influential people made for great stories.

The study and collection of art became almost a nonoptional engagement for Grand Tourists. Many returned home with bounties of paintings, antiques, and handmade items from various countries. Those that could afford to purchase lavish souvenirs did so in the extreme.

Arriving in Paris, one of the first destinations for most, a Tourist would usually rent an apartment for several weeks or months. Day trips from Paris to the French countryside or to Versailles (the home of the French monarchy) were common for less wealthy travelers that couldn't pay for longer outings.

The homes of envoys were often utilized as hotels and food pantries. This annoyed envoys but there wasn't much they could do about such inconveniences caused by their citizens. Nice apartments tended to be accessible only in major cities, with harsh and dirty inns the only options in smaller ones.

Trials and Challenges

A Tourist would not carry much money on their person during their expeditions due to the risk of highway robberies. Instead, letters of credit from reputable London banks were presented at major cities of the Grand Tour in order to make purchases. In this way, tourists spent a great deal of money abroad.

Because these expenditures were made outside of England and therefore did not bolster England's economy, some English politicians were very much against the institution of the Grand Tour and did not approve of this rite of passage. This played minimally into the average person's decision to travel.

Returning to England

Upon returning to England, tourists were meant to be ready to assume the responsibilities of an aristocrat. The Grand Tour was ultimately worthwhile as it has been credited with spurring dramatic developments in British architecture and culture, but many viewed it as a waste of time during this period because many Tourists did not come home more mature than when they had left.

The French Revolution in 1789 halted the Grand Tour—in the early nineteenth century, railroads forever changed the face of tourism and foreign travel.

• Burk, Kathleen. "The Grand Tour of Europe". Gresham College, 6 Apr. 2005.
• Knowles, Rachel. “The Grand Tour.”   Regency History , 30 Apr. 2013.
• Sorabella, Jean. “The Grand Tour.”   Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History , The Met Museum, Oct. 2003.
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50 vintage photos that show how different American life was in the 19th century

Posted: July 3, 2023 | Last updated: March 7, 2024

50 photos from American life in the 19th century

Photographs have a way of capturing emotion. A photo may echo sadness and desperation, as is the case with Dorothea Lange's 1936 photograph known as " Migrant Mother ," showing a distraught mother and her children during the Great Depression. It may capture the spirit of triumph, as is accomplished with John Rooney's iconic 1965 shot of boxing heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali standing over opponent Sonny Liston. A photograph can also appear to signify hope and joy, à la Alfred Eisenstaedt's "V-J Day in Times Square."

Regardless of the scene or sentiment that is captured in a photograph, images from throughout history have the ability to freeze moments in time. In doing so, they allow future generations to peer into the past and obtain glimpses into life before their own, whether it's the major events (e.g., Nat Fein's "The Babe Bows Out" or Abraham Zapruder's "JFK Assassination, Frame 313") or the small moments (e.g. W. Eugene Smith's "Country Doctor," or the first-ever cell phone photo, Philippe Kahn's image of his newborn daughter's first moments).

Like any time period in the age of photography, the 1800s in America has been widely chronicled, in images dating back to the early years of the century. A look back on the images will take viewers to the country's first boardwalk in New Jersey, make them grapple with the realities of the Civil War, and bring them along a journey to discover the evolution of transportation over the course of the decades.

To learn more about 19th-century America through photographs, Stacker compiled a collection of 50 essential images that capture what life was like in the 1800s. Photos are sourced from a wide range of government databases and national photo libraries. From photos depicting iconic inventors and activists in action, to those simply depicting a day on the beach, each of these images shines a light on a small corner of American life between 1800 and 1899. Read on to view fascinating images and learn more about the events and trends that shaped 19th-century America.

1890: Couple walks along the beach in Atlantic City

Seaside socializing rose to popularity in the 19th century, beginning in Britain where doctors were encouraging beach visits as a way to combat "melancholy," and later in America as the trend hit the East Coast. The first boardwalk stateside was built in Atlantic City in 1870 by two men—a hotelier and a railroad conductor—who had grown aggravated with beachgoers consistently dragging sand into their resorts and train cars. It was very basic, consisting only of an arrangement of boards laid out on the sand, and was later replaced by a larger railed boardwalk in 1890. In this photo, people stroll along the sand at the New Jersey beach, with the boardwalk in the background.

1855: U.S. Capitol dome under construction

The dome of the U.S. Capitol was designed by Philadelphia architect Thomas U. Walter, who took on the project after entering a competition to design an extension of the Capitol. While the government building had an original dome added in the 1820s, additions to the Capitol over the subsequent years made the original dome feel too small. This photo shows the Capitol dome under construction, as the original wood-covered copper structure was replaced by Walter's new and improved cast iron design.

1862: Enslaved people harvest sweet potatoes on Hopkinson's Plantation

The Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves held in rebel states be free, was signed into effect by President Abraham Lincoln on Jan. 1, 1863. That was just a year after this photograph by printmaker and photographer Henry P. Moore was captured. The image depicts a group of enslaved people as they work a sweet potato plantation in South Carolina.

It has been suggested that the image was staged by Moore as part of a larger statement about the condition of slaves in the country, even as they were on the cusp of freedom. Particularly, the argument has been that even with possible freedom on the horizon, the emotionless attitudes of the figures in the photograph could be Moore's way of depicting the struggles that would still lie ahead, even in a society freed from slavery.

1870: Docks of New Orleans in Louisiana

The Port of New Orleans has long been considered a major point of commerce in the United States, due to its instrumental location along the Mississippi River. The river is the country's largest and is a key point of transportation for goods , with the Port of New Orleans playing a role in the movement of key national exports like grain. In this photograph, the docks of the busy New Orleans port are captured with loads of cargo and ships being loaded for transportation along the Mississippi.

1862: Lincoln visits a Civil War camp in Maryland

The Battle of Antietam was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history , in which Union General George B. McClellan and his men successfully forced the troops of Confederate General Robert E. Lee out of Maryland and thwarted his efforts to invade the north. This photo shows then-president Abraham Lincoln visiting McClellan and his troops at their camp near Sharpsburg, Maryland, where the president attempted to persuade McClellan to attack Lee's troops while the Union army had the upper hand. Refusing to comply, McClellan was dismissed from his rank shortly after.

1864: Civil War destruction in Richmond, Virginia

During the Civil War, Union General William T. Sherman's belief was that a "total war" approach was perfectly logical and justifiable in the fight against the Confederates, writing in a letter to Army Officer Henry Halleck in December 1864 that Union soldiers were "not only fighting hostile armies, but a hostile people." In an effort to scare Georgia civilians into abandoning the Confederate cause, Sherman proposed a March to the Sea, in which he and 62,000 of his men traveled 285 miles from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia. Though Sherman's goal was not to blindly destroy everything that lay in his troops' way, his men were instructed to burn down the homes and barns of anyone who attempted to fight them.

Though the march was ultimately considered a win for the Union cause, it caused a good deal of damage along the way. Here, an image captures the destruction that was caused in Richmond during the course of the march.

1865: Lincoln's funeral on Pennsylvania Avenue

On April 14, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's Theatre by stage actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Abraham Lincoln's 1,700-mile funeral procession , which was the first to involve travel by train, traveled through more than 400 communities in six different states, in addition to the country's capital, between April 19 and May 3. Here, the funeral procession is shown as it moves along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington D.C.

1887: Construction of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway

The St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway was America's largest rail system and the start of what later became the Great Northern Railway , which ran from St. Paul, Minnesota, to Seattle, Washington. It was built to replace the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, which had gone bankrupt. Led by Canadian American railroad executive James J. Hill, the construction of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway began in 1879 and was completed in 1893. This photo shows the construction of the railroad in Montana.

1865: Helena, Montana, as a frontier town

Montana officially became a territory in 1864, after hopeful prospectors began flooding into the region during the gold rush. The swift spike in population that came with the migrations gave rise to what were known as "boomtowns," or "frontier towns," which are essentially quick-to-materialize towns that emerge when settlers land in a new region. Here, a frontier town in Montana's capital, Helena, is shown.

1872: Camp study of expedition

The role of geological surveying and land mapping played a critical role in understanding western lands being explored in the 19th century. Photographer William Henry Jackson was a key player in such projects, as he spent a good part of the late 1800s working with the U.S. government to survey regions around Yellowstone River and the Rocky Mountains. Jackson's job was to capture images of these new territories to create a documented account of the landscapes. This photograph by Jackson shows the survey team of an 1872 expedition as they sit by their camp.

1871: The Annie sails on Yellowstone Lake

The U.S. Congress in 1872 made Yellowstone the world's first government-recognized national park . Photographer William Henry Jackson captured this photo for the 1871 Hayden Geological Survey. The image depicts The Annie, the first boat to sail on Yellowstone Lake.

1875: Native American prisoners of the Red River War

As an increasing number of Americans headed west during the 19th century, the U.S. government tried to shrink or totally eliminate Native American tribes settlers came in conflict with along the way. The Red River War, a military campaign that took place in 1874 and 1875, was an effort to remove several Southern Plains tribes —Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho—from Texas territory. This photo depicts American Indian war prisoners in Florida, where 74 tribal leaders were imprisoned .

1878: Buffalo hide yard in Dodge City, Kansas

When the railroad arrived in Dodge City, Kansas, in 1872, it brought with it a drastic shift in how buffalo native to that region were hunted. While the animals were once killed primarily for food in addition to their hides, the railroad introduced an element of commerce that ultimately gave rise to a thriving buffalo hide industry . This photo shows Charles Rath—one of the greatest buffalo hunters of the 1800s—sitting on a rick of some 40,000 buffalo hides in 1878.

1885: Placer miners in Prescott, Arizona Territory

Placer mining is a method of using water to extract heavy minerals like gold and chromite from the earth. Panning, which was the method that gold miners used in the 19th century, is one early iteration of placer mining, by which prospectors would find gold by separating it from other minerals and the soil according to their density and gravity. This photo captures a scene involving several placer miners as they search for minerals in Prescott, Arizona Territory.

1880: Northwestern Express Stage and Transportation Co. in South Dakota

Hallmarks of long-distance stagecoach travel in the 19th century were pit stops every few hours during which coach drivers could swap out their horses and give passengers a chance to rest and eat (hence the name stagecoach: transportation occurring in stages). 

Even though the introduction of railroad travel in the latter half of the century added a new mode of transportation to choose from, stagecoaches remained a popular mode of transportation, especially in more rural regions. In this photo, a major stagecoach station in South Dakota—the Northwestern Express Stage and Transportation Co.—is shown as a coach prepares to start its journey.

1891: The Great Hostile Camp of the Lakota Sioux tribe

In 1890, the ongoing conflict between the U.S. military and Native Americans erupted on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Wounded Knee became the site of a massacre—and the final clash between the U.S. government and the Plains Indians—in which 250 Native Americans were killed. This image depicts the landscape of a Lakota village on the Pine Ridge Reservation.

1893: Oklahoma Land Run of 1893

By 1893, there had already been a number of land rushes in Oklahoma Territory, including the land rush of 1889, when President Benjamin Harrison opened up a 1.9 million-acre area of what had been Native American territory for western settlement. This photo depicts the Oklahoma Land Run Sept. 16, 1893, in which around 100,000 land-hopeful settlers raced west on trains, horses, foot and wagons to try to claim land for themselves and their families. With only 42,000 parcels of land available, however, most of the settlers would come out of the land rush with nothing to show for it.

1887: Sod house in the Nebraska plains

As Americans built homesteads throughout the Great American Prairie, one of the biggest struggles was the lack of ideal materials to work with for building. Without a natural supply of common materials like wood or stone, prairie homesteaders were often left to rely on sod: grass and the layer of soil and roots directly beneath it. In this photo, a family stands in front of their sod house in Nebraska.

1880: Load of lumber

Michigan's vast landscapes of pine trees and hardwoods made the region a key player in the 19th-century lumber industry. This photo shows a sled pulling loads of lumber in 1880, at which point Michigan had become the largest lumber producer in the country . Sleds were instrumental in moving massive logs on manmade ice-covered roads when simply dragging them from the forest wasn't a feasible option.

1890: Oregon salmon canning establishment

Just like Michigan was a valuable territory because of its high supply of lumber, other regions throughout 19th-century America quickly developed industries based on the unique natural resources of those areas. In the late 1800s, salmon-canning was a rapidly growing industry along the Columbia River in Oregon. In the 1880s, salmon canning reached its peak in the region, with a total of 39 operating canneries.

This photo depicts workers at an Astoria, Oregon, canning establishment in 1890, which marked the beginning of the salmon industries slowing thanks to overfishing in preceding years. The last cannery along the Columbia River closed in 1980.

1870: Thomas Edison in Newark laboratory

Though Thomas Edison is most commonly remembered for his invention of the incandescent lightbulb, the prolific inventor's work extends far beyond that, with a record 1,093 patents to his name. In this photograph, a young Edison works in his New Jersey laboratory. Edison perfected his lightbulb in 1879 after more than a year of tinkering and testing.

1883: The Brooklyn Bridge under construction

New York's Brooklyn Bridge was constructed in the 19th century to connect Manhattan and Brooklyn over the East River. The 14-year long project, which would be the first steel suspension bridge , was based on the designs of German-born civil engineer John Augustus Roebling. This photo shows the construction of the bridge as it nears its completion in 1883. The iconic part of the New York skyline took 600 workers and cost more than $320 million in today's dollars.

1892: Tram on San Francisco's Market Street

Built to serve as a more efficient alternative to the horse-drawn wagons and cable cars of the time, electric streetcars emerged as a mode of San Francisco transportation in 1892. This photo shows a section of the streetcar line along Market Street, which was the origin of the line that then ran through the Mission District and Glen Park to end in the Colma cemeteries.

1882: Sculpting of a Statue of Liberty model in Paris

While the Statue of Liberty is an iconic symbol of New York and American liberty at large, the statue was designed by a Frenchman . Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi created the Statue of Liberty upon a suggestion from Édouard de Laboulaye—also known as the "Father of the Statue of Liberty" —who wanted to create a monument that would symbolize freedom and democracy in the post-Civil War age. Here, Bartholdi works on the left hand of his large-scale statue in a Parisian warehouse.

1887: Students in New York school salute the flag

The influx of European immigrants in America during the 19th century caused a rise in slum communities, where those with limited resources were left to fend for themselves with few employment options or protective legislation. With one major result of the slums being a lack of adequate education for children, the Children's Aid Society built a series of industrial schools between the 1880s and 1890s.

These schools were meant to help take children out of slums and provide them with a strong education and moral foundation . In this photo, children from one of these schools—Mott Street Industrial School in New York—are shown giving the Oath of Allegiance. The image uses the then-newly developed technique of flash photography.

1870: Chicago White Stockings baseball club

This photo shows the Chicago White Stockings baseball team, including star players William Craver and Levi Meyerle, as they pose for a photograph on their Lakeside Park playing field in Chicago, Illinois. The White Stockings were the first professional team in the Windy City and served as the predecessors to the two well-known Chicago baseball teams that play for the city today: the Chicago Cubs and the Chicago White Sox.

1892: Ringling Brothers parade in Wisconsin

In the late 1880s, families used to await the arrival of acrobats, exotic animals, and other performers on " Circus Day ." Each time that a circus came through town, their arrival would be marked by a parade along the main street. In this photo, residents of Black River Falls, Wisconsin, line up on either side of Main Street to watch the procession of the Ringling Brothers Circus, including several elephants.

1892: Brighton Bicycle Club members prepare to race

Before Americans had many transportation options beyond horse-drawn wagons and coaches, cycling became a simple and popular way for people to get around. The convenience and rising ubiquity of cycling paved the way for the creation of bicycle clubs across the country, where like-minded residents of a community formed an organization focused on bicycle-forward travel, exploration, and enjoyment. This photograph from 1892 shows members of the Cincinnati-based Brighton Bicycle Club as they prepare to race.

1899: Steel pier at Atlantic City beach

With Atlantic City being the site of the first boardwalk in America, it's only fitting that the seaside city would also become home to the nation's first waterfront amusement park. Steel Pier was originally opened in 1898 by a local investment group, and quickly became a popular attraction for locals and tourists. The pier enjoyed a number of milestones, including hosting the first Miss America Pageant in 1921 and Frank Sinatra in 1950. In this photo, Steel Pier is shown in the center of a bustling beach in 1899, just a year after its completed construction.

1886: Randolph Street Market in Chicago's Haymarket Square

In April and May 1986, workers throughout Chicago—along with unionists, socialists, and anarchists—assembled and took to the streets to demand a nationwide shift to an eight-hour workday. Days of striking were interspersed with protest meetings, and on May 4, a demonstration that began peacefully on Des Plaines Street culminated in a violent clash between officers and citizens . The conflict left eight law enforcement officials dead and countless more citizens injured and dead. This image shows the busy center of Randolph Street Market in Chicago, just south of the 1886 anarchists' riot.

1888: Executive committee members of the International Council of Women

The International Council of Women in 1888 became the first organization of women to promote the advancement of women's rights and equality on an international level. The organization's birth and activity was a natural result of the growing discourse around gender-based injustice that was taking place in the latter half of the 19th century. In this photograph, members of the organization's first executive committee, including famous women's rights activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton, are shown during their first meeting in Washington D.C.

1889: New York Stock Exchange

Before the New York Stock Exchange came onto the scene, auctions were the closest thing to the kind of trading and exchanging that would establish a going rate for goods and commodities. In May 1792, the Buttonwood Agreement , which was signed on Wall Street in New York City, introduced the idea of a centralized exchange in the U.S. that would set a commission rate and eliminate the auctioneering culture of old. This photo shows the hectic floor of the New York Stock Exchange nearly 100 years after its initial founding.

1893: Great Basin at the Chicago World's Fair

The Chicago World's Fair —also known as the World's Columbian Exposition—was a six-month celebration honoring the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in North America. Among the many wonders on display at the fair was the nation's first Ferris wheel, as well as its first encounter with electricity. This photo captures the view from across the Great Basin, a sparkling lake in the center of the fair's Court of Honor , which was expertly designed and decorated by a group of artists and architects.

1893: Steam electricity power plant in Minneapolis

When the concept of electric streetcars was first introduced in the mid-1880s, there were many who were reluctant to embrace the new technology. Despite the promise of faster, farther-reaching transportation, skeptics, including Thomas Lowry, who controlled the Minneapolis and St. Paul streetcar companies, were unsure about whether to utilize electrification and what it would mean as far as safety. By 1892, however, all horse car routes in Minneapolis were electric, and the technology had more or less taken over. In this photo, workers are shown standing in a Minneapolis steam electricity plant, which powered many of the city's streetcars.

1890: Solvay Process Co. in Syracuse

When the Solvay Process Company created a Syracuse-based chemical plant in 1881, it was the first U.S. facility to utilize the Solvay process to manufacture sodium carbonate. Solvay Process Co. ultimately paved a new path for the road of industrialization towards the end of the 19th century. The plant eventually developed soda ash, which could be used in the production of materials like glass and paper, as well as products like soap.

1890: Coal miners in Pennsylvania

As industrialization largely shaped the 19th century, coal mining largely shaped the progression of industrialization. As one of the cheapest and most efficient sources of fuel that could be used for things like trains and steam engines, the value of coal to the country's continued growth was extremely significant. Unfortunately, the job of coal mining was a brutal one, and many men who took on the job—like those pictured here in Pennsylvania—were often severely injured or killed during the process.

1895: Oil derricks on a hillside in Pennsylvania

While some people headed west to pursue precious minerals during the gold rush, others headed to Pennsylvania in the late 1850s to look for oil, or "black gold." The Pennsylvania Oil Rush started in 1859 , after oil—and, more importantly, its ability to replace steam and coal as a mode of power and fuel—was first discovered. Here, a cluster of hillside oil derricks owned by the Shoe and Leather Petroleum Company and the Foster Farm Oil Company is photographed in Pioneer Run, Pennsylvania.

1890: Horse-drawn combine thresher harvests wheat in Oregon

The use of combine harvesters was new to America as of the 1860s. The farming technology combined the once-independent jobs of a header and a thresher, and thus significantly reduced the time and effort that it would take a farmer to harvest wheat, corn and a number of other crops. In this photograph, the combine harvester is pulled through an Oregon wheat field by horses—though the process allowed for fewer men to be involved, it could call for up to 40 horses—as it harvests the grain.

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1895: Traveling medicine salesman in Oklahoma

Before the widespread existence of brick-and-mortar stores where people could purchase their goods, traveling salesmen were rather common. This was especially true in areas around the Midwest that were slightly more remote. In this image, a traveling salesman speaks to residents of a farm in Oklahoma as they peruse his powders and medicines.

Unfortunately, traveling salesmen were not always the most trustworthy. In the case of those peddling medicine, for example, the popularity of " medicine shows " that traveled across the country and offered "miracle cures" that were sure to cure any number of ailments simply preyed on the desperate to make a profit, without offering any true medical benefit.

1892: School children playing in their Iowa classroom

The quality of schools in rural Iowa in the 1890s was concerning to many who felt children were being disadvantaged by inferior education. This shortage of well-trained teachers was largely attributed to factors including subpar standards for teacher certification and low wages that left high-quality teachers disincentivized to educate children at Iowa schools. Children were often none the wiser, however, as is evident by this image of elementary school children holding hands and playing a game in their Keota, Iowa, classroom.

1893: Street vendors sell newspapers and comic books

Before the newsstand came to be, the news could be obtained from vendors simply standing on the street and selling it on the go. Here, three men are photographed selling various forms of reading material, including: "Snapshot" comic books; "Chums," a weekly newspaper for young boys; and a newspaper featuring a front-page story on the death of actor Edwin Booth, who was the brother of Abraham Lincoln's killer, John Wilkes Booth.

1894: Federal troops during the Pullman Strike

At a point where railroad traffic was thriving and had drastically impacted transportation of individuals and goods across the country, any disruption to the railroads' regular operations had the power to drastically impede day-to-day life. The Pullman factory strike in 1894 did just that. After having their requests declined during a wage negotiation, factory workers of the Pullman Palace Car Company went on strike. The boycott was extremely detrimental to railroad traffic across the country and resulted in the first instance of government officials and troops getting involved—as seen in this image—to break a strike.

1864: Denver's South Platte River during the Great Flood

Tragedy struck Sheffield and surrounding regions in Colorado territory when, in 1864, a dam in one of four nearby reservoirs was breached, giving way for around 650 million gallons of water to escape in under an hour. The flood—known as the Great Sheffield Flood —killed 240 people and left homes and other buildings drowning under as much as 26 feet of water. In this photograph, people in Denver stand along the shore of the South Platte river, which is rushing under the pressure of incoming water from the flood.

1898: Gold diggers climb Chilkoot pass in Alaska

Nicknamed the "Golden Staircase," Alaska's Chilkoot Pass is a 26-mile trail that took hopeful—and incredibly brave—prospectors through the territory's frigid conditions during the Klondike Gold Rush. This image shows gold diggers trekking along the route in 1898, just two years after gold had been discovered in the Klondike region in 1896. Following the initial discovery of gold, more and more hopefuls attempted to brave the elements—including blizzards, avalanches, and freezing temperatures—to try their hands at finding gold deposits of their own at Klondike.

1892: Ellis Island opens

New York Harbor's Ellis Island first opened in 1892 and served as a point of entry for immigrants coming to America. It's estimated that more than 12 million immigrants arrived at Ellis Island in the 60-plus years that it was ushering newcomers into the country. With immigrants coming from throughout Europe, the migration of people to the U.S. that occurred through Ellis Island marked one of the first huge waves of incoming immigrants in the country. This undated photo (circa 1880) captures a group of people descending from a ship docked in the harbor as they enter Ellis Island.

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1896: Telephone exchange employees in New York

The first switchboard was created in 1878 out of a variety of random materials, including teapot handles and carriage bolts. Though it wasn't the most refined prototype, the creation paved the way for the mainstreaming of telephones, which up until this point had been somewhat limited in their potential due to limited transmission technology.

With the switchboard in place, cross-country telephone communication became far simpler, by connecting callers to a middleman who would direct calls from there. The switchboards, which needed to be operated manually, were often handled by women, as is evident in this photograph of employees at a telephone exchange in New York City.

1895: Veranda of the Palm Beach Hotel in Florida

Before 1894, Palm Beach wasn't a top destination for beachgoers just yet, but that changed when Henry Flagler came into the area and revitalized it with the construction of West Palm Beach's first resort: The Royal Poinciana Hotel. Other hotels, including the Palm Beach Hotel—pictured here with its grand terrace—and the Palm Beach Inn (known as The Breakers) also emerged to attract wealthy visitors and encourage tourism in the county.

1895: Children swim at a public bath in New York

Record numbers of incoming immigrants during the late 19th century in America created major crises of overcrowding in cities like New York, where space was limited and populations were relentlessly rising. A result of the influx of new residents gave rise to tenement housing, which were multistory apartment buildings that crammed multiple families into living quarters with limited space and facilities.

Tenement buildings that popped up in poorer neighborhoods of the city were usually accompanied by public bathhouses , where family members could bathe and keep cool during hot summer months. Here, a group of children is shown playing and swimming in a public bath in New York.

1896: Henry Ford drives his first automobile

By the late 1800s, people had traveled by wagon, stagecoach, train, tram, and trolley. Automobiles, however, had yet to enter the scene until 1896, when Henry Ford created the quadricycle , his first attempt at a car that would run on gas. The automobile was constructed using iron for the outer body and a leather belt and chain for its transmission. In this photograph, Ford is pictured driving his first car on Grand Boulevard in Detroit, Michigan. He later sold the vehicle for $200 and used the money to build a second iteration of the prototype model.

1898: Young men recruited for Spanish-American War

By 1895, Spanish colonial control was dwindling, with some of its few remaining colonies worldwide being Cuba and the Philippines. The Spanish-American War occurred as a result of Cuba's fight to break free from Spanish rule; a fight that the U.S., in 1898, became involved in after pressure by popular demand. In this photograph, military recruiters in New York attempt to enlist volunteers to fight in the war.

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Minister pledges support for community hotel in Roscrea as he opens refurbished tourist attraction

There were protests in the tipperary town earlier this year when its only remaining hotel, racket hall, became a centre for asylum seekers.

Mary Heffernan, head of national monuments at the OPW, with Patrick O Donovan, Minister of State for the OPW, at the opening of the refurbished Damer House and Roscrea Castle in Co Tipperary. Photograph: John D Kelly Photography

Minister of State Patrick O’Donovan has pledged to work with ministerial colleagues Heather Humphreys and Roderic O’Gorman to develop a community hotel in Roscrea as he opened a near €1 million investment in a tourism attraction in the north Tipperary town.

Minister for the OPW Mr O’Donovan visited Roscrea to open a €900,000 investment in the refurbishment of 13th century Roscrea Castle. There were protests in the town earlier this year when its only remaining hotel, Racket Hall, became a centre for asylum seekers.

The Government subsequently pledged to acquire the former Damer Court Hotel near the castle and develop it as a community hotel, with local Tipperary Fianna Fáil TD Jackie Cahill and Fianna Fáil councillor Michael Smith obtaining a commitment from Minister for Integration Roderic O’Gorman to progress the plan.

Mr O’Donovan, a Fine Gael TD, has pledged his support for the proposal, saying he will push for it with both the Minister for Rural Development Ms Humphreys and Mr O’Gorman.

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“The OPW has invested almost €1 million in the refurbishment of Roscrea Castle and the Damer House, which is a fantastic visitor attraction here in the centre of the town, but I would see this as the start rather than the end of the process in terms of OPW involvement,” he said. “But now that this investment is complete, the most important thing is that we get people stopping off in Roscrea and visiting the castle, and the more people we get through the gate, the more justification I have to spend more money here.”

Mr O’Donovan would not be drawn on OPW projections on visitor numbers, but conceded Roscrea Castle was coming from a low base having been “virtually mothballed since Covid”. However, he expressed confidence it would be a significant addition to the tourism product in Tipperary.

“A lot of people travel up and down the M7 who are not aware this place is here at all – we need to get even a small share of those people to come off the motorway into Roscrea – it won’t just benefit our numbers but will be a boost to the local coffee shops and restaurants in the hospitality sector.”

Mr O’Donovan said the OPW would work with the local community in Roscrea as well as local heritage groups and Tipperary County Council as it had done in Cashel, Cahir, Nenagh and Thurles to further enhance the tourism product that it can offer through such conservation work.

A stone motte castle dating from the 1280s, Roscrea Castle was a Butler stronghold for over four centuries before falling to Cromwellian forces in 1650. In 1798 it served as a barracks, housing 350 soldiers, and it later served as a school, a library and a sanatorium. The castle includes in its courtyard Damer House, an early 18th century pre-Palladian house that fell into disrepair in the 19th century.

The castle’s three-year restoration by the OPW involved upgrading of lighting and fire and safety works in the Gate Tower, as well as works to repair stone jambs, sills, keystones and lintels on the north and east facade of Damer House, a national monument, to prevent water ingress into the fabric of the house.

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Barry Roche is Southern Correspondent of The Irish Times

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World Atlas names 5 Hudson Valley towns the most picturesque in New York. See the list

New York is more than the Big Apple — small towns throughout the Empire State are lush with natural beauty, history, culture and more. The Hudson Valley is no exception.

According to  World Atlas , the Hudson Valley is home to five of the nine most picturesque small towns in New York State.

Small towns with charm dot the New York landscape, each with its own charm, natural beauty and colorful communities. Here are the nine most picturesque small towns in the New York include the five located in the Hudson Valley, as determined by the World Atlas.

Sleepy Hollow, NY

Sleepy Hollow , a village located within the town of Mount Pleasant in Westchester, is home to all of the above. And it's on the list of New York's most picturesque small towns. Looking to play tourist in your own backyard here in Westchester? Here are a few backdrops to consider in Sleepy Hollow, which celebrates its 150th birthday this year .

Sleepy Hollow, is best known for being the main inspiration for Washington Irving's “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”

Scenic places to visit: Sleepy Hollow named one of the most picturesque places in NY

New Paltz, NY

Located in Ulster County, in the Mid Hudson Valley, the Wallkill River runs through the town and is in sight of the impressive Shawangunk Ridge. New Paltz was settled by French Huguenots in the early 18th Century. Historic Huguenot Street is home to seven original stone houses and one church founded in 1678. The Mohonk Preserve is located nearby, where 70 miles of carriage roads and hiking/biking/horseback riding trails cover the northern Shawangunk Ridge. The ridge is also home to the Minnewaska State Park Preserve and Mohonk Mountain House – a world-famous resort at the northern tip of the small but dramatic Lake Mohonk. 

Kingston, NY

Located in Ulster County, Kingston was once the first capital of New York. Today, it is the rich history and picturesque scenery that truly makes Kingston stand out. The Stockade District, a historic district consisting of eight blocks of 17th-Century structures, holds the distinction of being designated as National Historic Places and Landmarks. The Kingston waterfront boasts the Hudson River Maritime Museum , which features a rotating exhibit of antique ships anchored in the river. Visitors can also enjoy a sandy public beach and catch a glimpse of the Rondout Lighthouse, situated on its solitary island platform, from Kingston Point Park.

Saugerties, NY

Another town located in the Mid Hudson Valley in Ulster County is Saugerties. It's located between the Hudson River and the Catskill Mountains. Saugerties has a picturesque lighthouse , just like Kingston. The lighthouse was built in 1869 at the Esopus Creek intersection. It now serves as a luxurious bed and breakfast with two rooms. The Catskill Animal Sanctuary , Falling Waters Preserve and Esopus Creek Conservatory, are all located here. Saugerties has a charming small-town commercial district that stretches along the easily walkable Main and Partition streets.

Woodstock, NY

The final Hudson Valley town on the list is Woodstock . Located in Ulster County in the  Catskill Mountains , Woodstock is famous for giving its name to a well-known music festival in 1969, even though the festival happened 40 miles away in Bethel, Sullivan County . According to the World Atlas, Woodstock offers many chances to enjoy the outdoors. Overlook Mountain and Catskill Center Thorn Preserve are close by. Mower’s Flea Market is a popular spot that's open every weekend. Additionally, there are plenty of performing arts centers, galleries and museums to explore.

Rounding out the list, here are the four other most picturesque small towns in New York State that are outside the Hudson Valley.

Lake Placid, NY

Lake Placid, located in the Adirondacks, has hosted the winter Olympics twice and is a popular destination for various sports like skiing, triathlons, skating and hiking. The village is situated on the southern shores of Lake Placid and is surrounded by Mirror Lake. Visitors can enjoy numerous wooded hikes starting from trails in the village, which also offers a variety of charming shops and restaurants.

Watkins Glen, NY

Watkins Glen, located in Schuyler County, is famous for its stunning gorges and hiking trails found in Watkins Glen State Park . Take a leisurely walk along the boardwalk of Seneca Lake Pier and then enjoy a delicious meal at one of the lakeside restaurants.

Montauk, NY

Montauk, located at the eastern tip of Long Island, is famous for its beautiful beaches, coastal parks, water activities like boating and fishing, upscale hotels and excellent restaurants. The World Atlas highlights these attractions. Additionally, Montauk is where you can find the historic Montauk Point Lighthouse, constructed in 1796, making it the oldest lighthouse in New York and the fourth oldest in the United States.

Skaneateles, NY

Skaneateles, located by the stunning Skaneateles Lake, is known for its beauty. The town welcomes visitors with its charming waterfront at Clift Park and the picturesque Skaneateles Pier. The historic district, with its preserved 19th-Century buildings, adds to the town's appeal for tourists.

lohud editor Ashley Fontones contributed to this story.

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Once a Roadside Attraction, a Native Burial Site Nears Repatriation

Centuries-old grave mounds in Illinois became a flashpoint in the debate over displaying Native American remains. Now, tribes are close to seeing them reburied.

By Julia Jacobs

Reporting from Springfield, Ill.

In 1927, on a bluff overlooking the Illinois River Valley, a chiropractor named Don Dickson took a shovel to his family’s farmland in Fulton County, Ill., and uncovered burial mounds dating back eight centuries.

He scooped out the dirt, exposing the open graves of more than 280 Native Americans, many of whom had been buried among their possessions, and began charging admission, making it a roadside tourist stop.

In the decades that followed, the Illinois State Museum turned the site into a full-fledged museum, excavating more than 800 skeletal remains before constructing the building that stands there today. Then, in 1990, Congress passed a law requiring museums to return Native American remains and cultural items they held to the appropriate tribes. In the years after that, the museum closed the exhibit and covered the exposed graves with a cedar floor. But the pace of returns from its collection was slow.

Now, nearly a century after Dickson first began digging, the museum says that it has consulted with tribes regarding the remains of more than 1,300 Native Americans — 286 beneath the cedar floor, the rest removed and kept elsewhere — that are now ready to be repatriated. It is a major step for the Illinois State Museum in addressing its repository of human remains, which is one of the largest in the country.

The repatriation work has taken on greater urgency in recent months, after new federal regulations meant to strengthen the 1990 law, which have put significant pressure on museums to make the remains of the more than 96,000 Native Americans still in the possession of federally funded institutions available to be returned to tribes.

For the Illinois State Museum, that will mean picking up the pace, drastically. In the three decades since the law was passed, the Illinois State Museum had made the remains of fewer than 200 individuals ready to repatriate.

Under the new regulations, institutions have five years to make the rest of the human remains and accompanying funerary objects in their possession accessible to tribes for repatriation; for Illinois, that means addressing the remains of more than 5,800 Native Americans and about 30,000 burial belongings. The process often involves lengthy consultations with multiple Native nations, archival research and curatorial work that can involve going through boxes of funerary objects.

“It’s a daunting task,” said Logan Pappenfort, the curator of anthropology at the Dickson Mounds Museum, which has kept open other exhibits about the history of the land and its inhabitants. “But I think that the core tenets of what we have to do doesn’t change.”

Pappenfort, who is a member of the Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, is part of a younger generation of museum curators who have been at the forefront of rethinking repatriation work by letting tribes lead the decision-making over what should be returned and how.

These practices have been codified by the new federal regulations, which sought to ease some of the hurdles that required tribes to prove that they had claim to remains or objects, and required that institutions ask for consent before exhibiting Native remains or cultural items.

Some of the outcomes of these new rules, which went into effect this year, are already apparent to museum visitors: Anyone visiting the American Museum of Natural History , the Field Museum in Chicago or the Illinois State Museum may have noticed covered cases, obscured while the museums seek approval from tribes to show the items inside.

But one of the most significant parts of the regulations — the five-year deadline — is an invisible clock ticking for institutions like the Illinois State Museum, as they quickly and carefully try to de-accession holdings that have been amassed since the mid-19th century.

“These regulations have lit a fire,” said Brooke Morgan, the anthropology curator at the Illinois State Museum. “They say, ‘You’ve been talking about doing this, you’ve been thinking about doing this — it’s time to actually get it done.’”

A turning point in the ’90s

About an hour’s drive from the Illinois State Museum in Springfield, the Dickson Mounds branch stands as a relic of a time when Native American remains were commonly put on display.

“There was a lot of profit in going and digging up our ancestors,” said Raphael J. Wahwassuck, a tribal council member of the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, that has ancestral land in central Illinois. “And Dickson Mounds is just an incredibly amplified example, taken to the extreme.”

But in the 1980s, as Native American activists called attention to the disparate treatment of their ancestors’ graves, public opinion on the exhibition of human remains was shifting.

Sensing a coming reckoning over Dickson Mounds, museum leaders announced in early 1990 that they planned to close the burial site where visitors could peer over a railing into the exposed graves that Dickson and others had dug up. A spotlight would shine on specific individuals, according to an account from the time , pointing out details like the remains of an infant and a woman with arthritis.

Some locals objected furiously to the closure, protesting what they viewed as a loss of history and tourism, and the plan was briefly halted.

More protests followed from Native activists who viewed the exhibit as a desecration of their ancestors, with demonstrators tossing dirt into the pit in a gesture toward reburial. In 1990 Congress passed the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act , or, NAGPRA, requiring, for the first time, that museums take stock of the Native remains and cultural items in their possession and repatriate them if there is a reasonable link to a modern-day tribe.

In 1991, Gov. Jim Edgar of Illinois ordered the display of open graves at Dickson Mounds closed.

Slow progress in Illinois

As the Illinois State Museum embarked on its first major efforts toward repatriation in the 1990s, its curators decided to start with more modern holdings, which often had documentation that could help prove a clear link to a tribe.

But the older holdings — including the Dickson Mounds remains, many of which date back to around 1150 — largely fell by the wayside, as ProPublica first detailed in an investigation last year. For curators, there was a lack of clarity about which modern tribes had claims to holdings dating back to before colonial record-keeping began.

“If we couldn’t define a tribe or a small group of tribes to repatriate to, there was uncertainty as to where they should go,” Robert Warren, who worked on repatriation at the museum in the ’90s, said of the remains.

In 1997 the Illinois State Museum made the remains of about 120 Native Americans and more than 32,000 burial belongings ready for return. But after that, repatriations slowed to a trickle: Before the museum started organizing a new repatriation team in 2018, it had prepared the remains of only 18 more Native Americans for repatriation.

The new team recommitted to repatriation work and prioritized Dickson Mounds, leading to a three-year consultation period between museum staff and officials from a dozen federally recognized tribes with ancestral ties to Illinois.

Now that the museum has made the Dickson Mounds holdings ready for return, the tribes are considering logistics. Wahwassuck, who was involved in the consultation on behalf of the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, said the hope is to rebury the fully excavated remains and the thousands of burial belongings — which include ceramic vessels, fishhooks and shell spoons — as close as possible to where they were initially uncovered.

There have been discussions about what to do about the remains in the dug-up graves that are still beneath the heavy cedar floor, which tribal officials consider to be improperly buried because they are not covered by earth.

A looming deadline

There is plenty of work left in Illinois. The museum must prepare to return the remains of more than 5,800 Native Americans, many of which were amassed because the institution is the go-to repository in the state for human remains dug up during construction or inadvertently uncovered.

Morgan acknowledges that with the size of the collection and the web of potential tribal affiliations, the Illinois State Museum may have to seek an extension to the five-year deadline, which is permitted in the new regulations if the tribes involved agree.

For now, the museum is looking toward the next site it will to focus on: a 700-year-old cemetery known as Norris Farms No. 36, about two miles up the road from Dickson Mounds. More than 260 skeletal remains were discovered there in the 1980s during a highway expansion, when museum workers were summoned to excavate them to save them from destruction.

As the deadline looms, Morgan envisions putting the Norris Farms No. 36 remains — which have been the subject of extensive scientific study over the decades — at the center of a consultation process that also pulls in remains excavated in other parts of Fulton County, which was a magnet for archaeological work in the mid-20th century.

Matthew Bussler, the tribal historic preservation officer for the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi, one of the tribes involved in the Dickson Mounds consultations, said he has seen the pace of requests mount since the new federal regulations were announced at the end of last year.

The key for tribes, he said, will be to work with one another in groups, allowing them to discuss cases and decide which tribe should take the lead on reburials. “Tribes come to consensus with one another pretty readily, because we all want these ancestors and their belongings out of these institutions,” Bussler said.

That approach is becoming increasingly common as institutions like the Illinois State Museum have become more willing to relinquish some decision-making power over where, exactly, their holdings of Native remains and funerary objects end up.

“We want this to be directed by the tribes,” Pappenfort said. “What the tribes want is what we want.”

Julia Jacobs is an arts and culture reporter who often covers legal issues for The Times. More about Julia Jacobs