as polar wandering

True polar wander in the Earth system

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• Published: 22 May 2023
• Volume 66 , pages 1165–1184, ( 2023 )

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• Chong Wang 1 &
• Ross N. Mitchell 1 , 2  

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True polar wander (TPW), or planetary reorientation, is the rotation of solid Earth (crust and mantle) about the liquid outer core in order to stabilize Earth’s rotation due to mass redistribution. Although TPW is well-documented on Earth presently with satellites and for multiple planets and moons in the Solar System, the prevalence of TPW in Earth history remains contentious. Despite a history of controversy, both the physical plausibility of TPW on Earth and an empirical basis for it are now undisputed. Lingering resistance to the old idea likely stems from the fact that, like plate tectonics, TPW may influence much of the Earth system, thus acknowledging its existence requires rethinking how many different datasets are interpreted. This review summarizes the development of TPW as a concept and provides a framework for future research that no longer regards TPW like a ghost process that may or may not exist, but as an integral part of the Earth system that can relate shallow and deep processes that are otherwise only mysteriously linked. Specifically, we focus on the temporal regularity of large TPW, and discuss its relationship with the supercontinent–megacontinent cycle based on previous studies. We suggest the assembly of mega-continents has a close linkage to large TPW. Meanwhile, supercontinent tenure and breakup have a close linkage to fast TPW. The effects of TPW on sea level changes, paleoclimate, biological diversity, and other facets of the Earth system are presented and require interdisciplinary tests in the future.

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Acknowledgements

This paper, solicited on the invitation and vision of Shihong ZHANG, is dedicated to Joseph KIRSCHVINK, who pioneered TPW research in the modern era, before it became popular. Adam MALOOF drafted Figure 2a. We appreciate constructive comments from Hairuo FU and an anonymous reviewer. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42102243, 41888101, 41890833), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2022T150642), and the Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. IGGCAS-201905).

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Wang, C., Mitchell, R.N. True polar wander in the Earth system. Sci. China Earth Sci. 66 , 1165–1184 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-022-1105-2

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November 8, 2012 report

Planetary scientists propose two explanations for true polar wander

by Bob Yirka , Phys.org

(Phys.org)—Researchers using computer simulations and modeling have come up with two possible explanations for the phenomenon known as true polar wandering. The team led by Jessica Creveling of Harvard University, suggest in their paper published in the journal Nature , that dramatic shifts in the Earth's surface over millions of years, and then a return to the previous state, can be explained by bulging at the equator and elasticity of the planets outer shell.

Scientists have known for many years that there are two kinds of shifting of the Earth's surface. One is continental drift; the other is true polar wander where all the continents move together due to an out-of-the-ordinary event, such as the melting of a large ice field or the formation of a large volcano. And while researchers have come to understand the processes that can cause large shifts to occur together over a period of time, they have been at a loss to explain how those very same parts mange to eventually move back to where they came from. In this new research, the team suggests it has to do with how the Earth is shaped, and the elasticity of rock in the planet's mantle.

The researchers note that the Earth is not perfectly round – it's more of a compressed sphere with bulging occurring at the equator. This works to keep the planet stabilized and causes the continents to bounce back slightly if nudged out of their normal continental drift . That's the first explanation for why the topography of the planet is able to bounce back from an unsteadying upheaval. The second, they say is due to the elasticity of the mantle itself. When an abrupt change forces major movement of the mantle and the crust, potential energy is stored in the rock in the same way as happens with a rubber band when it's twisted. Once the forces that caused the initial changes subside, the potential energy takes over, pushing the continents back to where they were before the upheaval occurred.

The researchers came to these conclusions after studying metal deposits in the ground which are known to line up with the Earth's magnetic field. Doing so provides clues about the orientation of the planet during different times in history. Using such clues they built computer models and simulations that led to their proposed explanations of true polar wander. They suggest that such movement isn't about to happen again anytime soon however, as their study found that Earth has rotated just 30 degrees over the past 200 million years.

Abstract Palaeomagnetic studies of Palaeoproterozoic to Cretaceous rocks propose a suite of large and relatively rapid (tens of degrees over 10 to 100 million years) excursions of the rotation pole relative to the surface geography, or true polar wander (TPW). These excursions may be linked in an oscillatory, approximately coaxial succession about the centre of the contemporaneous supercontinent. Within the framework of a standard rotational theory, in which a delayed viscous adjustment of the rotational bulge acts to stabilize the rotation axis, geodynamic models for oscillatory TPW generally appeal to consecutive, opposite loading phases of comparable magnitude. Here we extend a nonlinear rotational stability theory10 to incorporate the stabilizing effect of TPW-induced elastic stresses in the lithosphere. We demonstrate that convectively driven inertia perturbations acting on a nearly prolate, non-hydrostatic Earth with an effective elastic lithospheric thickness of about 10 kilometres yield oscillatory TPW paths consistent with palaeomagnetic inferences. This estimate of elastic thickness can be reduced, even to zero, if the rotation axis is stabilized by long-term excess ellipticity in the plane of the TPW. We speculate that these sources of stabilization, acting on TPW driven by a time-varying mantle flow field, provide a mechanism for linking the distinct, oscillatory TPW events of the past few billion years.

Journal information: Nature

© 2012 Phys.org

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Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander, and Plate Tectonics

The study of the Earth's magnetic field as recorded in the rock record was an important key in reconstructing the history of plate motions. We have already seen how the recording of magnetic reversals led to the confirmation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis. The concept of apparent polar wander paths was helpful in determining the speed, direction, and rotation of continents.

Apparent Polar Wander

To illustrate the idea of polar wander, imagine you have a composite volcano on a continent like the one in the sketch below. I assure you that the sketch will be better understood if you also watch the screencast in which I talk while I draw it.

Apparent polar wander sketch

Click here for transcript

In order to illustrate an apparent polar wander path, let’s say we’ve got the Earth here, and it’s got its poles like so, just the way they are today. The magnetic field lines are going like that. And let’s say we’ve got a continent sitting here. It looks like this. There’s a volcano on this continent and it’s a composite volcano. A composite volcano spews out lava and it gradually builds up the mountainside with its lava flows like this. Here’s the lava coming down this side. Let’s pretend we are a geologist and we’re going to go to this volcano and we’re going to take some samples of these lava flows. We’ll zoom in on these lava flows here. The uppermost sample of the lava flow, we’ll call that this green one here. Underneath that green one there’s a more orange-yellow lava flow and then under that there’s this oldest one here. We have a magnetometer and so we can try to figure out which way all these lava flows thought north was when they formed and cooled. Let’s say that the red one points sort of in this direction and the yellowish one looks like this. The green one was formed during the field like it is today so its north is like that. There are two possible explanations for how this could have occurred. We’ll draw those right here. Explanation 1 is that the poles moved around and the continent stayed in the same place. In that case, we’ve got a continent sitting here. When the most recent lava formed, this green stuff, the pole was right up here, where it is today. But back when this volcano was making the yellow lava, the pole was in a slightly different place. It was more like over here. The oldest lava flow is recording a pole that was more like in that direction. In this case we end up with what we call an apparent polar wander path. Over time from back when to the present time the pole moved in that direction. The other possibility is that the continent moved and the pole stayed in the same place. In that case, the green continent of today would be here. When this lava froze, it was pointing north toward the north pole. Back when this yellow lava formed, if the pole was in the same place then the continent would have to have been over here somewhere like this because its lava froze pointing north, but then over time when this continent moved to its present position with the lava still frozen in place it is now pointing in a different direction that isn’t where north is anymore. If we go back even farther in time toward the red lava, then the continent must have been sitting in a position sort of like this. When its lava formed, it was pointing north, then when this continent went through this rotation, this lava was already frozen in place, so the direction it’s pointing isn’t in the same place that north is now. We can construct a path — an apparent wander path if you will — of the continent. We can see that the continent must have gone sort of like this. This is in the opposite direction of the one we constructed before.

This volcano erupts from time to time, and when its lava solidifies and cools, it records the direction of the Earth's magnetic field. A geologist armed with a magnetometer could sample down through the layers of solidified lava and thus track the direction and intensity of the field over the span of geologic time recorded by that volcano. In fact, geologists did do this, and they discovered that the direction of the north pole was not stationary over time, but instead had apparently moved around quite a bit. There were two possible explanations for this:

• Either the pole was stationary and the continent had moved over time, or
• The continent was stationary and the pole had moved over time.

Seafloor Spreading Saves the Day!

Before plate tectonics was accepted, most geologists thought that the pole must have moved. However, once more and more measurements were made on different continents, it turned out that all the different polar wander paths could not be reconciled. The pole could not be in two places at once, and furthermore, the ocean floors all recorded either north or south, but not directions in between. So how could lavas of the same age on different land masses show historic directions of the north pole differently from each other? Once seafloor spreading was recognized as a viable mechanism for moving the lithosphere, geologists realized that these "apparent polar wander paths" could be used to reconstruct the past motions of the continents, using the assumption that the pole was always in about the same place (except during reversals).

Calculating a Paleomagnetic Latitude

The example in my fabulous drawing gives a rather vague description of the idea behind using paleomagnetic data to reconstruct the former positions of the continents, but how is it actually done? We use magnetometers.

The angle between the Earth's magnetic field and horizontal is called the magnetic inclination . Because the Earth is a round body in a dipole field, the inclination is directly dependent on latitude. In fact, the tangent of the angle of inclination is equal to twice the tangent of the magnetic latitude, which is the latitude at which the permanently magnetized rock was sitting when it became magnetized. Therefore, given knowledge of your present location and a magnetometer reading of the inclination of your geologic item of interest, such as a basalt flow, you can calculate the magnetic latitude at the time of its formation, compare it to your present location, and determine how many degrees of latitude your present location has moved since that rock cooled.

Polar Wandering as Evidence of Continental Drift

Continental drift, once a theory on the fringe of the scientific community, is now a well-established phenomenon. The idea that continents move around on the surface of the Earth has been supported by overwhelming evidence from many different sources. Polar wondering as evidence of continental drift is now a widely known fact. The method of polar wandering uses magnetic data to track how the poles have shifted over time. When overlaid with maps of ancient coastlines, it’s clear that continental drift has occurred many times throughout history.

Table of Contents

What is continental drift and how it was first proposed?

When Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912, he did not have enough evidence to convince the scientific community. However, for the next few decades, a growing body of evidence began to support his idea. One such thing is polar wondering as evidence of continental drift.

Polar Wandering is the observed movement of the Earth’s poles over time. This phenomenon can best be explained by continental drift: as the continents move around on the planet’s surface, they drag the poles along with them. Another line of evidence comes from paleomagnetism or the study of ancient magnetic fields. Paleomagnetism has revealed that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed itself several times throughout its history. 

If continental drift were not happening, the poles would be in the same place as they are today and the magnetic field would not have reversed. Together, these lines of evidence provide strong support for continental drift and plate tectonics.

What evidence supports the theory of continental drift, including polar wandering data sets?

Continental drift is a geological theory that suggests the continents on Earth were once one giant landmass, and over time have slowly drifted apart to create the continents we see today. There is evidence that supports this theory, including the occurrence of polar wandering.

Polar wandering occurs when the magnetic North Pole and the South Pole move away from their original positions. This can be traced back through history by studying samples of rock that form in bands, as they contain minerals with different magnetic properties.

When looking at rocks that formed hundreds of millions of years ago, scientists can determine where in the world they were found based on which way they aligned with Earth’s magnetic field at that time. By studying polar wandering data, scientists have been able to confirm continental drift theories. Hence, the scientists approved polar wondering as evidence of continental drift. 

Discuss the evidence for polar wandering:

One of the most important pieces of evidence for polar wandering is the fact that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed itself numerous times throughout the planet’s history. These graphs show how the magnetic pole moves around different continents, and they don’t agree! This is an important finding because it means that all Earth’s landmasses were moving together over time- since there shouldn’t be any difference between them if you look at just one area (like say, Africa).

This evidence is preserved in the rocks, which show a record of the Earth’s magnetic field at the time they were formed. In addition, there are ancient maps that show the continents in different positions than they are today. For example, the Piri Reis map shows Antarctica without ice, proving that it was once located in a different position. 

Finally, certain fossils can only be found in specific regions, which suggests that those regions were once located in different locations. All of this evidence points to the fact that the Earth’s poles have wandered over time and establishing polar wondering as evidence of continental drift.

How does continental drift account for geological features on different continents (such as mountains and volcanoes)?

Polar wandering as evidence of continental drift is provided by the observation that the Earth’s poles have not always been in their present locations. Rather, they have “wandered” about over time, as indicated by the changing positions of various magnetic anomalies. The most likely explanation for this phenomenon is that the continents themselves have shifted position over time, carrying the magnetic anomalies with them.

This hypothesis is further supported by the fact that the positions of continental shorelines appear to match up quite well when the continents are reconstructional. For example, the east coast of South America appears to fit quite nicely into the west coast of Africa. Continental drift provides a plausible explanation for the observed geological features on different continents.

What are the potential implications of continental drift on human history/civilization development?

Although the concept of continental drift is now widely accepted by the scientific community, its potential implications on human history are still being explored.  The continental drift can have a significant impact on human history and civilization development. For example, when continents move apart, it can create new land masses and alter ocean currents. This can lead to changes in climate , which can impact the development of human societies. 

One theory suggests that the breakup of Pangaea played a role in the development of early civilizations. According to this theory, the isolation of landmasses allowed different cultures to develop independently, leading to the formation of distinct societies. 

The emergence of new trade routes also played a role in the spread of ideas and technologies between regions. As our understanding of continental drift continues to evolve, we may gain new insights into the origins and development of early civilizations. 

Continental drift may also have potential implications for future generations. For example, as sea levels rise , coastal regions will become increasingly vulnerable to flooding and other natural disasters. The continental drift can cause earthquakes and volcanoes. 

These natural disasters can destroy infrastructure and disrupt trade routes, potentially leading to the decline of civilizations. Thus, continental drift is a powerful force that has shaped the Earth’s landscape and human history.

Additionally, the shifting of tectonic plates could result in new mountain ranges forming, which could impact global climate patterns. As we continue to learn more about continental drift, we may be able to better prepare for these potential impacts.

How has the study of continental drift evolved, and what challenges remain in this field of research?

The theory of continental drift was first proposed in the early 20th century, and it wasn’t until the 1950s that the theory began to gain acceptance among the scientific community. The main piece of evidence supporting continental drift was the fit of the continents along their edges.

The discovery of plate tectonics in the 1960s provided a possible mechanism for continental drift, and since then the study of continental drift has progressed rapidly. However, there are still many unanswered questions, such as why some plates move faster than others, and what role mantle convection plays in plate tectonics. 

Since the early 20th century, the study of continental drift has undergone a dramatic transformation. Initially, the theory was based largely on observations of the physical features of the Earth’s surface. However, as more evidence was gathered, it became clear that there must be an underlying process responsible for the movement of continents. 

This led to the development of plate tectonics, which provided a more detailed and accurate explanation for continental drift. Today, plate tectonics is widely accepted as the most likely mechanism for continental drift.

However, there are still some unresolved issues in this field of research. For instance, the researchers lack a mechanism to explain how continents could move. Scientists are still working to determine the exact rate at which continents move.

Additionally, they are also investigating whether or not other planetary bodies, such as Mars, have experienced continental drift. Ultimately, the study of continental drift is an ongoing process, and scientists continue to make discoveries that further our understanding of this phenomenon.

Conclusion:

Continental drift is a real phenomenon that we can see evidence of all around us. It’s amazing to think about how our planet has shifted and changed over time, and it’s thanks to the dedicated efforts of scientists who have pieced together this evidence that we can understand our world in such detail. Have you seen any other compelling evidence for continental drift? Share your thoughts in the comments below!

1. What is polar wandering?

Polar wandering is the shift in the Earth’s poles from one location to another over time. The North and South Poles have not always been located where they are today. For example, during the last ice age, the Earth’s poles were located closer to the equator than they are now.

2. What is Continental Drift?

Continental drift is the scientific theory that explains how the continents have moved over time. The continents are not stationary; they move around on the Earth’s surface. Continental drift occurs when the Earth’s crust (the outermost layer of the Earth) moves. The movement of the continents is very slow, about a few centimeters per year. 

3. What is the evidence for polar wandering?

Several lines of evidence suggest that the Earth’s poles have shifted over time. One type of evidence comes from looking at the locations of ancient magnetic stripes on the ocean floor. These stripes are created by lava as it cools and solidifies. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed many times over the millennia, and these reversals are recorded in the orientation of the magnetic stripes. The stripe pattern shows that the Earth’s poles have moved over time.

4. How does polar wandering help us understand continental drift?

The theory of continental drift proposes that the continents have moved over time. One piece of evidence for this is the fit of the continents like a jigsaw puzzle. For example, the coastlines of Africa and South America fit together perfectly. Another piece of evidence comes from looking at ancient climates. Climates change over time, and certain types of plants and animals can only live in specific climates. If the climate was different in the past, it suggests that the continents have moved to their current locations. Polar wandering is one mechanism that can cause the continents to drift.

5. What is the difference between polar wandering and plate tectonics?

Polar wandering is the shift in the Earth’s poles from one location to another over time. Plate tectonics is the movement and interaction of the Earth’s lithospheric plates. The two phenomena are related, as plate tectonics can cause the continents to drift, which in turn can cause the poles to shift.

6. What are some of the implications of polar wandering?

Polar wandering can have several implications. For example, it can cause climate change, as the shifting of the poles can affect global patterns of atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Additionally, polar wandering can impact navigation, as the Earth’s magnetic field is used to help guide compasses. Finally, polar wandering can cause disruptions to communication systems, as changes in the Earth’s magnetic field can interfere with radio waves.

7. How do we know that polar wandering has happened?

One piece of evidence for polar wandering comes from looking at fossils of animals and plants. Certain types of animals and plants can only live in specific climates. For example, penguins can only live in cold climates near the Earth’s poles. If fossils of penguins are found in areas that were once located near the equator, it suggests that the Earth’s poles have shifted over time.

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Scientists scour the Junggar Basin in northern China. Rocks across the country record dramatic climate change between 165 and 155 million years ago. Older rocks are rich in coal that formed in cool and wet conditions, while younger red sandstones formed in hot and dry climes. Researchers now suggest this alteration has a curious cause: a change in the region's geographic location linked to a phenomenon called true polar wander.

Earth's odd rotation may solve an ancient climate mystery

A geologic change might have plunged lush landscapes into arid zones, killing off an array of creatures—and it might happen again one day.

At first, it seems like a case of extinction by climate change: More than 160 million years ago, during the Jurassic period, a fanciful menagerie crept, swam, and flew through the cool, damp forests of what is now northeastern China. Then, almost in a geologic instant, the air grew warmer and the land dried out. As the water disappeared, so too did the life. And yet, researchers have struggled to pin down a climate-related culprit behind this ecological collapse.

Now, a study published in the journal Geology suggests that it wasn’t the climate that changed, but the geographic location of the landscape . Paleomagnetic signatures in the area’s rocks indicate that sometime between 174 and 157 million years ago, the whole region shifted southward by a startling 25 degrees, plunging once lush landscapes into zones of desiccating heat.

The ancient rocky lurch was part of a phenomenon known as true polar wander, in which the topmost layers of the planet, likely all the way down to the liquid outer core, rotate significantly even as Earth continues its daily turn around its usual spin axis.

In the Jurassic, the surface and mantle made this twist around an imaginary line through the crook in Africa’s west coast known as the Bight of Benin . The change would have been massive: If a similar shift were to happen today, a flag planted in Dallas, Texas, would end up where Northern Manitoba, Canada, currently sits. On the other side of the world, the continent of Asia would soar southward.

Earth has likely experienced smaller amounts of true polar wander throughout its past, and some scientists think it continues today.

“We’re experiencing true polar wander as we speak,” says Dennis Kent, a paleomagnetist at both Rutgers and Columbia University who wasn’t part of the new study team.

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To be clear, these more recent forays are not the source of modern-day climate change, which is driven by humans’ relentless release of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere . In addition, the magnitude of this Jurassic shift—and whether true polar wander is even a real phenomenon—remain under debate.

“It’s a reasonable area of discussion,” says Christopher Scotese , director of the PALEOMAP Project. “But it’s more controversial than people give it credit for.”

Studying Earth’s past and present geologic wanderings may not only help resolve the controversy, but also improve our understanding of the planet’s complex machinations.

“It’s so important that there’s still fundamental science being done,” says Lydian Boschman , a geologist at Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich who was not a study team member. “If we don’t understand the foundations, then there’s nothing we can do on top of that.”

Twisty-turny past

While deep geologic gyrations can have drastic impacts on Earth’s surface, the planet’s magnetic field remains largely unchanged by such events, since it is generated by the churn of molten iron and nickel in our planet’s outer core, some 1,800 miles below the surface. Researchers can therefore turn to iron-rich minerals attuned to magnetic fields to untangle the planet’s past twists and turns. As sediments collect and solidify or lava cools to stone, these minerals align themselves with the global magnetic field like compass needles, recording a snapshot of a region’s location on our planet at a given period in the past.

But not all rocks are perfect stenographers. As sediments are turned to rock, compression can tweak the magnetic signature and impact their inferred planetary position. By removing this sedimentary confusion and looking only at volcanic rocks, Kent and the late Edward Irving , who worked at the Geological Survey of Canada, found the signatures of a monster jump during the Jurassic period . Their results, published in 2010, suggested that Earth’s surface shifted some 30 degrees between 160 and 145 million years ago.

Subsequent studies started to fill in the gaps in the record, and increasingly it seemed that the entire world was in on the Jurassic mega-shift, with evidence found in modern-day Africa , North America , South America, and the Middle East . But one place appeared to largely stay put: the Eastern Asian Blocks, a zone that includes most of Mongolia, China, North Korea, and South Korea.

“It hardly moved in terms of latitude during that entire period,” says study coauthor Joseph Meert , a paleomagnetist at the University of Florida. “That didn’t seem to really jive well with aridification.”

Part of the challenge was that studies documenting the region’s position with paleomagnetic analyses didn’t sample from a large enough swath of time, Meert explains. While volcanic rocks faithfully record magnetic north, this pole has a tendency to roam, so researchers must average their analyses with data covering several thousands of years to account for these wanderings. ( Magnetic north just changed, and here's how we’re trying to keep up. )

The region itself was also frequently excluded in discussions of global change because of its complex history, Kent adds. While the path of other landmasses can be traced back to the supercontinent Pangea, which broke up roughly 180 million years ago , East Asia’s route remains unclear.

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“They were doing their own dance out there,” Kent says.

The monster shift

In the summer of 2015 and spring of 2018, the latest team set out in search of a more robust paleomagnetic record to untangle the geologic movements of East Asia, says lead study author Zhiyu Yi of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in Beijing.

Rocks across China tell very different stories, as portrayed by their starkly different hues. The early to middle Jurassic deposits are dark and rich with coal, hinting at a humid ancient landscape chock full of plants. By contrast, the late Jurassic formations hosted rusty red deposits laid down in drier conditions. ( Learn about the bizarre fossil finds that revealed Asia’s oldest known forest .)

The team sampled volcanic rocks interwoven into these contrasting formations at a total of 57 sites. In 2017, their analyses confirmed past work that showed the younger red rocks were laid down at low latitudes, where hot and dry conditions likely prevailed, Yi says. But the moment of truth came in the summer of the following year, when they analyzed the older samples and discovered that they formed at surprisingly high latitudes.

“At that moment, I knew what these data mean to us—we finally found the [true polar wander] signals,” Yi writes via email.

True polar wander may be behind the demise of northern China's array of life known as the Yanliao Biota. This die-off set the stage for a new jumble of creatures to arise known as the Jehol Biota, which includes the fossil Jeholosaurus shown here.

Meert admits that he was a little skeptical of the massive shift at the start, but the new findings have him convinced: “We were saying, Yes, yes, this is it,” he says, recalling the time he sat down to dinner with Yi in Beijing to review the data. “The sense of motion and everything just seemed to fit neatly together. So we had a beer and toasted and said, Let’s do this.”

The results suggest that the Jurassic surface rotated by at least 6.7 inches each year, which led to the slow drying of the East Asian landscape that likely killed off many of the region’s ancient plants and animals known as the Yanliao Biota. Past studies hint that another smaller wander around 130 million years ago returned East Asia to temperate climes, setting the stage for the rise of a burst of life known as the Jehol Biota . These exceptionally preserved fossils have yielded many startling finds, including the discovery of the first known feathered dinosaur that was not directly related to birds. ( Read about the dinosaurs that didn’t die. )

Spinning futures

“The beauty is that it is very simple,” says Giovanni Muttoni , a paleomagnetist at the University of Milan, Italy, who was not involved in this work but has extensively studied the big Jurassic wander. The motion and magnitude line up with past work, he notes, and they connect mysterious changes in climate with this planetary twist.

However, Scotese isn’t convinced that true polar wander occurred at all during the last 200 million years, arguing that the effects could be explained by the movement of tectonic plates. During the Jurassic period, he says, Asia and North America inched along as if they were on a seesaw that pivoted around Europe. While North America moved northwest, Asia shifted southeast.

“There’s a huge amount of noise in the paleomagnetic database, and often paleomagnetists do all sorts of contortions to try to minimize the noise or correct things that they think are errors,” he says. “I just disagree with that philosophy. I feel that’s biasing the database.”

Others stand firm with the data pointing to true polar wander and the monster shift in the Jurassic.

“They are real,” Muttoni says. “They are recorded in the rocks.”

If so, many questions linger. For one, it’s unclear precisely what drives such a large shift, an event that must involve some significant redistribution of our planet’s mass. Perhaps the birth of subduction zones —regions where one tectonic plate drives under another—drives the wander, Boschman says. Or, it could be due to slabs that have already subducted breaking apart, which would then send pieces of crust sinking through the mantle, upsetting the planetary balance, Kent adds. For now, unraveling the many geological unknowns is all part of the intrigue.

“We’ve got a nice expanding envelope of knowledge, and you try to be at the meniscus where it’s happening,” Kent says. “But in the meantime, you may be out there on a ride.”

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• Published: 23 February 1973

Does Polar Wandering Occur ?

Nature volume  241 ,  pages 497–498 ( 1973 ) Cite this article

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As polar bears enter peak feeding season, experts offer tips on how to avoid meeting them in the wild

Climate change is bringing these bears into human contact more often than before.

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With climate change causing more polar bear encounters, one expert has advice on how to decrease the odds of coming into contact with the animal.

Duane Collins is a certified polar bear guard, someone who has training to detect polar bears as well as monitor areas for possible activity. He says one of the public's biggest misconceptions is that polar bears hunt humans.

"Like most wild animals, a polar bear simply wants to be left alone," Collins told CBC News in a recent interview. "Probably the best advice for living in and around polar bear country is leaving them alone."

While it's true they are potentially dangerous animals, he said humans aren't a natural part of their diet. Instead, they have a very specialized carnivorous diet, 90 per cent of which is seal.

Collins, who also owns outdoor tourism company Hare Bay Adventures, advised people to avoid areas where there are reported polar bear sightings. When polar bears are on land, he said they can be "opportunistic."

He said there is a lot people can do as individuals and communities to reduce encountering the animals, including making sure garbage is stored securely and making sure the scent from garbage isn't "wafting across the landscape of a polar bear."

"It literally goes nose first through the universe," Collins said, describing the animal's acute sense of smell.

He said anything people can do to cut down on smells is beneficial to keeping polar bears away, like cleaning out a barbecue or not keeping pet food outdoors.

As for how the bears arrive in the communities, it's usually related to sea ice patterns. However, Andrew Derocher, University of Alberta professor of biological sciences, said climate change's impact on sea ice is causing polar bear sightings to rise. 

Derocher, who has studied polar bears for 40 years, said their Arctic habitat is warming faster than other parts of the world.

"Sea ice is melting earlier in the springtime and forming later in the autumn," said Derocher.

This means polar bears are pushed off sea ice earlier in the spring, move onto land, and then don't head out until later in the autumn, he explained.

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"During this on-land period is when the bears are coming into conflict with people."

That lengthier on-land period poses a lot of biological risks. 

For every day the polar bears are on land and not feeding, Derocher said, they use up one kilogram of body weight. He said if the ice-free period is four months long, a bear uses up about 120 kilograms of body weight. While some bears will be able to lose that much weight, others don't have that "stored energy" and will be the ones who come closer to communities and dumps.

"It doesn't matter where you are in polar bear range, we're seeing far more polar bears coming into communities, coming into peoples' cabins or camps. And these are usually food-stressed animals," said Derocher.

Derocher said sea ice formed late in some areas this year and polar bears are now entering their peak feeding season, which can last until June and dictates how fat the bears will get.

"And if they're not fat, then we'll see a lot more bears around communities," Derocher said.

These hungry animals are often the ones who became dangerous to humans, Derocher added, because they can become predatory.

That's why polar bear guard Duane Collins said he always emphasizes that people should not go near these creatures.

"If you can at all, avoid it. Never go out, even if you are armed to confront a bear, unless it's absolutely necessary."

He also said Newfoundland and Labrador's polar bear population is "robust."

Download our free CBC News app to sign up for push alerts for CBC Newfoundland and Labrador. Click here to visit our landing page .

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Elizabeth Whitten is a journalist and editor based in St. John's.

With files from CBC Newfoundland Morning

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