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Fact sheet: 2022 national travel and tourism strategy, office of public affairs.

The 2022 National Travel and Tourism Strategy was released on June 6, 2022, by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Gina M. Raimondo on behalf of the Tourism Policy Council (TPC). The new strategy focuses the full efforts of the federal government to promote the United States as a premier destination grounded in the breadth and diversity of our communities, and to foster a sector that drives economic growth, creates good jobs, and bolsters conservation and sustainability. Drawing on engagement and capabilities from across the federal government, the strategy aims to support broad-based economic growth in travel and tourism across the United States, its territories, and the District of Columbia.

The federal government will work to implement the strategy under the leadership of the TPC and in partnership with the private sector, aiming toward an ambitious five-year goal of increasing American jobs by attracting and welcoming 90 million international visitors, who we estimate will spend $279 billion, annually by 2027.

The new National Travel and Tourism Strategy supports growth and competitiveness for an industry that, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, generated $1.9 trillion in economic output and supported 9.5 million American jobs. Also, in 2019, nearly 80 million international travelers visited the United States and contributed nearly $240 billion to the U.S. economy, making the United States the global leader in revenue from international travel and tourism. As the top services export for the United States that year, travel and tourism generated a $53.4 billion trade surplus and supported 1 million jobs in the United States.

The strategy follows a four-point approach:

• Promoting the United States as a Travel Destination Goal : Leverage existing programs and assets to promote the United States to international visitors and broaden marketing efforts to encourage visitation to underserved communities.
• Facilitating Travel to and Within the United States Goal : Reduce barriers to trade in travel services and make it safer and more efficient for visitors to enter and travel within the United States.
• Ensuring Diverse, Inclusive, and Accessible Tourism Experiences Goal : Extend the benefits of travel and tourism by supporting the development of diverse tourism products, focusing on under-served communities and populations. Address the financial and workplace needs of travel and tourism businesses, supporting destination communities as they grow their tourism economies. Deliver world-class experiences and customer service at federal lands and waters that showcase the nation’s assets while protecting them for future generations.
• Fostering Resilient and Sustainable Travel and Tourism Goal : Reduce travel and tourism’s contributions to climate change and build a travel and tourism sector that is resilient to natural disasters, public health threats, and the impacts of climate change. Build a sustainable sector that integrates protecting natural resources, supporting the tourism economy, and ensuring equitable development.

Travel and Tourism Fast Facts

• The travel and tourism industry supported 9.5 million American jobs through $1.9 trillion of economic activity in 2019. In fact, 1 in every 20 jobs in the United States was either directly or indirectly supported by travel and tourism. These jobs can be found in industries like lodging, food services, arts, entertainment, recreation, transportation, and education.
• Travel and tourism was the top services export for the United States in 2019, generating a $53.4 billion trade surplus.
• The travel and tourism industry was one of the U.S. business sectors hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent health and travel restrictions, with travel exports decreasing nearly 65% from 2019 to 2020. 
• The decline in travel and tourism contributed heavily to unemployment; leisure and hospitality lost 8.2 million jobs between February and April 2020 alone, accounting for 37% of the decline in overall nonfarm employment during that time. 
• By 2021, the rollout of vaccines and lifting of international and domestic restrictions allowed travel and tourism to begin its recovery. International arrivals to the United States grew to 22.1 million in 2021, up from 19.2 million in 2020. Spending by international visitors also grew, reaching $81.0 billion, or 34 percent of 2019’s total.

More about the Tourism Policy Council and the 2022 National Travel and Tourism Strategy

Created by Congress and chaired by Secretary Raimondo, the Tourism Policy Council (TPC) is the interagency council charged with coordinating national policies and programs relating to travel and tourism. At the direction of Secretary Raimondo, the TPC created a new five-year strategy to focus U.S. government efforts in support of the travel and tourism sector which has been deeply and disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Read the full strategy here

The Bahamas: Tourism Policy Within a Pandemic

• First Online: 30 October 2021

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The tourism industry of The Bahamas, one of the most tourism dependent countries in the world, was devastated by COVID-19. Without precedents and with an ongoing crisis, policymaking to secure a revival was unusually difficult. The Bahamas government sought to reopen the industry, initially by prioritizing health issues, but the private sector was more reticent. Various government statements about re-opening came to nothing. Reopening eventually coincided with a rise in COVID-19 cases. Few practices suggested making adequate links between data, experience and potential policies. An opportunity was lost to develop a long-term strategic development policy for a post-pandemic future.

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McLeod, M. (2021). The Bahamas: Tourism Policy Within a Pandemic. In: Campbell, Y., Connell, J. (eds) COVID in the Islands: A comparative perspective on the Caribbean and the Pacific. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5285-1_12

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Tourism ‘intrinsically susceptible’ to climate shocks, political unrest, pandemic threat

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The President of the UN General Assembly on Tuesday highlighted the urgent need to boost sustainable and resilient tourism practices to protect the environment while continuing to benefit local economies.

Addressing a high-level meeting on tourism as part of the General Assembly’s first ever Sustainability Week , Dennis Francis said it was a vital driver of economic growth and empowerment .

In 2023, the sector contributed three per cent to the global gross domestic product (GDP), amounting to $3.3 trillion, and employed one in every ten people worldwide. For countries in special situations, like small island nations, tourism accounted for nearly 35 per cent of all export earnings and up to 80 per cent of national exports .

“Despite the spectacular benefits reaped across its vast supply chains – tourism is also intrinsically susceptible to a host of disruptive forces – such as climate change, pandemics, acts of terrorism, and domestic political instability,” Mr. Francis said.

Sustainable

He expressed concerns about the sector’s environmental and carbon footprint, saying sustainability must be paramount.

“We need a global tourism sector that is sustainable – one with deep local value chains that expand demand for locally made products and services in ways that also directly and positively benefit local communities,” he urged.

Moreover, he emphasized that the sector should also leverage digital technology to foster innovation and expand opportunities for jobs and economic growth, especially for women, youth, and indigenous and local communities.

“We also need a global tourism sector that is resilient,” said Mr. Francis, stressing the need to minimize its vulnerabilities and bolstering its ability to withstand external shocks.

This includes designing infrastructures that can withstand environmental disasters, fostering innovations that enhance economic and social resilience, and diversifying tourism activities to reduce recovery time after disruptive events.

Symbol of hope

Zurab Pololikashvili, head of the UN World Tourism Organization ( UNWTO ), also spoke at the General Assembly, noting that despite today’s pressing challenges, tourism offered a glimmer of hope.

Reflecting on the sector’s recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic – its most significant crisis in history – he observed that in 2023, international arrivals rebounded to almost 90 per cent of pre-pandemic levels , with full recovery expected by the end of 2024.

This recovery must serve as a catalyst for bold action and transformative change, he said, emphasizing, “tourism can – and must – be a part of this plan for a better future for all.”

Sustainability Week

The high-level event on tourism followed Monday’s deliberations on debt sustainability , where speakers outlined the crippling impact of debt on developing economies, and called for urgent reform of the global financial system.

Upcoming highlights of the week include dedicated discussions on sustainable transport, infrastructure and energy.

• General Assembly
• 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

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Tourism Policy, Planning, and Development

General overview.

Tourism policy, planning, and development are all very connected and do not just occur when a geographic area decides to be a tourism destination. Policy, planning, and development are included in numerous aspects of communities.

continue but from different perspectives. An example would be the use of the destination/product lifecycle, discussed later. It is important to understand what tourism planning and development are individually as well as collectively. Planning is essential to effective development. Tourism is not always a beneficial industry for a geographical area, but without planning tourism can damage the area, including natural and cultural resources (Morrison et al., 2018). A destination might consider “Who, What, When, Where, Why” when working on a tourism plan. The same can be considered for tourism development, as well as other topics included in this alternative textbook (e.g., marketing and promotion).

Tourism Policy

A policy is essentially a course of action taken by some organization or institution (e.g., government, business, educational institution). A tourism policy as defined by Edgell et al. (2008) “is a progressive course of actions, guidelines, directives, principles, and procedures set in an ethical framework that is issues-focused and best represents the intent of a community (or nation) to effectively meet its planning, development, product, service, marketing, and sustainability goals and objectives for the future grown of tourism” (p. 7). Stated more simply, Hall and Jenkins (1995) suggest “tourism public policy is whatever governments choose to do nor not to do with respect to tourism” (p. 7-8). A tourism policy is essentially a framework including guidelines, goals, and initiatives to work toward achieving the goals. Where as an act by government, such as the Travel Promotion Act of 2009 establishing Brand USA, is a law or statute.

A policy for international travel is having a current passport and for many countries a Visa. The application for a Visa to visit a foreign country allows countries to approve who may visit the country and not allow individuals for a variety of reasons (e.g., security threat). The U.S also has the Visa Waiver Program, which is an agreement with  40 countries allowing citizens of those countries to visit the U.S. for business or leisure travel purposes for up to 90 days without a Visa, provided they meet other requirements (U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Counsular Affairs, n.d.). The countries with the Visa Waiver Program also allows U.S. residents to travel to the respective countries with fairly similar criteria. The purpose of requiring a Visa is to regulate travel between countries. The Visa Waiver Program is an agreement to allow citizens of certain countries to visit without having to obtain a Visa if certain criteria are met. This essentially makes it easier to travel between the respective countries.

The International Trade Administration includes a Tourism Policy Council (TPC) to ensure national decision-making considers the national interests of travel and tourism (International Trade Administration, n.d.). The TPC provides resources to help with such issues or challenges as recovering from disaster, and links to Center for Disease Control (CDC), and many other potential issues or challenges for travel and tourism in the U.S.

At more local levels, Morrison et al. (2018) suggest tourism destinations can develop policies for development, marketing, tourist experiences, human resource issues, tourism organizations (e.g., structure), relationships throughout the community, quality assurance, and supporting services (e.g., safety and security).

Policy Setting Process

There are a series of recommended steps for the establishing policy (Morrison et al., 2018). First, identifying and assessing the circumstances related to the issue. This includes understanding contraints that you and/or will face. Constraints can be internal (e.g., locals’ awareness of tourism, training and education of employees in hospitality and tourism, budget) or external (e.g., economy,  price of gas, natural disaster). The tourism organization/local industry has more control or ability to do something about internal constraints, while have little or no control over external constraints. For example, nothing can be done about bad weather or if a natural disaster occurs. However, if locals are not aware of tourism in the local community, education and information can be shared to make locals more aware. This step in the process can also make you aware of new opportunities (e.g., an attraction to develop, new target market).

The next step is typically to create a policy statement to provide guidelines, goals, and initiatives to help guide the organization, destination, etc. While not directly a policy statement, most CVB vision statements include something that provides a guideline with somewhat vague goals. For example, it might be to maintain and/or improve the quality of life for residents of the destination by promoting the destination for tourism and conventions, which would include an economic goal. A policy statement for this vision would be more specific with the goals and initiatives identified to fulfill the goals.

Consultation with government, local tourism businesses, and any other stakeholders is next. This step is to get feedback about the policy statement. Following the consultation and depending on the outcome, the policy statement might be rewritten or modified. Next would be another round of consultation and then rewriting until the the policy statement is approved.

Now is time to implement the policy statement. This will include identifying specific roles of individuals, committees, organizations, etc. This step also includes developing the budget and timeline for the initiative(s).

Finally, those involved evaluation the policy. Were the goals achieved? Why or why not? However, you do not wait until the end of the established timeline for the policy to evaluate. There should be constant assessment to identify if you are likely to achieve the goals. Remember there are numerous constraints that are external (e.g., weather, natural disaster) that might dictate the need to adjust the initiatives and other efforts related to the tourism policy.

Tourism Planning

Prior to tourism planning it is important to consider other types of planning for a community or geographic area. Planning is not new. Gunn and Var (2002) indicate physical planning goes back to early Greek and Roman times. Planning is done to manage visual appearance and land use. However, planning incorporates many disciplines and perspectives: “Planning is a multidimensional activity and seeks to be integrative. It embraces social, economic, political, psychological, anthropological, and technology factors. It is concerned with the past, present, and future” (Rose, 1984, p. 45).

Gunn and Var (2002) suggest when plans (not only tourism, but community, etc.) are created they often include very high or lofty goals and it is difficult to actually achieve such goals for numerous reasons. Planning is very vague and has no real theory behind it. For community plans the general goal is a better place to live. For tourism planning the goal might be to provide visitors with a good experience. As stated earlier, an effective  tourism plan can also maintain or even improve the quality of life of residents, not just economically but the attractions provide activities for local residents as well as tourists.

Morrison et al. (2018) offer three primary reasons for tourism planning. The first two are related to impacts, to maximize the economic benefits and minimize damage to resources (i.e., natural, environmental, cultural). Another reason for a tourism plan is that tourism is constantly changing for many reasons (e.g., visitor expectations, needs, motives; politics; economy; technology). As a result, the plan needs to be adaptable.

Not all destinations have a tourism plan. Some reasons for not having a tourism plan include (Morrison et al., 2018):

• Objections – it should be taken care of by the private sector and there is no need for a formal plan.
• Cost – includes market research, consultations, and a lot of time.
• Complex – tourism is affected by numerous things, such as government policies, dynamic of the community and stakeholders.
• Diversity – various sectors involved directly or indirectly in tourism.
• Seasonality – in many destinations the jobs related to tourism can be seasonal (e.g., beach destinations, snow skiing destinations).
• Unpredictability – keep in mind the numerous things that affect and make tourism complex (e.g., natural disasters, crises, politics, economy).

Gunn and Var (2002) add the following tourism planning barriers:

• Lack of awareness of tourism impacts – which is ironic because it is a reason for a tourism plan.
• Do not understand tourism development – there needs to be a plan for developing tourism and then maintaining and even upgrading tourism (e.g., attractions, facilities, etc.).
• Inadequate infrastructure – might have deteriorated attractions, facilities, etc.
• Unorganized – no leadership to guide the process.
• Politics – usually various opinions among stakeholders (e.g., businesses, government, other stakeholders).
• Lack of hospitality training.

However, there can be serious consequences of unplanned tourism. In general, unplanned tourism is not likely to be sustainable tourism economically, environmentally, socially/culturally.

Tourism Planning Models or Approaches

Morrison et al. (2018) provide a seven step tourism destination planning model:

• Background analysis – including a SWOT analysis and assessments of government policies that affect tourism, inventory analysis (e.g., attractions, accommodations, restaurants, etc.), current demand for tourism at the destination.
• Research and analyses – identify/map locations of the inventory analysis, market survey of current visitors (e.g., motivations, what they like to do) and non-visitors (e.g., why have they not visited?, awareness of the destination, image/perception of the destination), competitive analysis (e.g., who are your competitors?, how can you differentiate your destination from competitors? what do and can you work to improve?).
• Where are we now? (position statement).
• Where would we like to be? (vision statement). Then, identify critical success factors or ways to measure and determine if you achieved your vision.
• Setting goals, establishing strategies, and setting objectives – develop a policy or (e.g., stimulate the economy). Set goals or achievable outcomes. Identify alternative strategies to achieve goals and select the most desired of the alternatives given environment or conditions (e.g., economy, resources, politics). Set objectives which are more short term goals to help monitor if you are going to achieve your longer term goals. If not, remember a tourism destination plan should be adaptable, which is the next step.
• Develop a plan – identify organizations and people to be involved and their roles, funding sources and budgets for different aspects of the plan, activities to implement your plan.
• Implement and monitor the plan – While the plan should be developed by input and participation by numerous stakeholders, it is generally implemented by a local tourism agency or organization (e.g., CVB). But, there should be committees derived of various stakeholders to which the agency is accountable. This helps monitor progress of implementing the tourism destination plan and adapt if needed.
• Evaluate the plan – measure performant of the various parts of the plan against the goals (e.g., did you achieve the goals? Why or why not?). Use the evaluation to see if and how you might adapt the plan moving forward.

Tourism Development

The tourism destination plan helps guide development of tourism. Destinations will be at various stages of development. So, it is not that the tourism plan is just for a destination just getting involved in tourism. As suggested by Mason (2003). development and change for destinations occurs as time progresses. The characteristics, motives, preferred activities and attractions, and many other things change over time and destinations redevelop to remain competitive. A fairly common way to view this is commonly referred to as “Butler’s Tourism Area Lifecycle”. There are five main stages to Butler’s Life Cycle (Butler, 1980):

• Exploration – at this stage there might be some tourism but not really an effort to provide traditional or common tourism attractions, facilities, etc. This stage mostly include tourists visiting facilities and local resources used by residents.
• Involvement – this is the beginning of the destination offering some facilities for tourists. The destination begins to more formally organize and provide or improve infrastructure, some attractions, and facilities for tourists at a local level.
• Development – the destination begins marketing and promoting the destination. This stage also begins development from outside organizations and/or businesses. The destination will begin to develop and look more like a noticeable tourist destination. More and more tourists will likely visit the destination as development progresses.
• Consolidation – at this stage the rate of increase in visitors will begin to decline. The rate of development will also begin to decline. Residents may become opposed to tourism with all of the non-locals who are in the community and there is more traffic and congestion. Some of the older attractions, facilities, etc. may also begin showing degradation.
• Decline – number of visitors will be begin to decrease as competitor destinations might have more appealing attractions, infrastructure, etc. The degradation of attractions, infrastructure, and other aspects of the destination will continue and possibly turn into what Butler (1980) refers to as a “veritable tourist slum” (p. 9).
• Rejuvenation – this outcome can occur by development of a new man-made attraction, which is likely to be followed by improvement of surrounding attractions, facilities, and other tourist needs. However, if competitor destinations also rejuvenate, the competition will remain and rejuvenation might be much less or possibly not rejuvenate and potentially decline. Another way Butler (1980) suggest rejuvenation can occur is to utilize natural resources that might not have been part tourism product throughout previous tourism development and marketing and promotion.

Butler (1980), as well as many other tourism scholars, suggest all of these efforts or stages of Tourism Area Life Cycle should be a collaborative effort within the community. For example, the government could offer incentives for private development of a new man-made attraction.

There are a number of potential ways to develop tourism. One way is to develop a “flagship” attraction, which are major attractions like a theme park (e.g., Disney Land, Disney World) and/or utilize natural attractions (e.g., ocean, lake, National Park). Gunn and Var (2002) offer recommendations for tourism destinations to develop destination zones. The zone would have clusters of attractions (e.g., museum districts) and a corridor connecting the clusters with some form of transportation. Clustering attractions provides tourists with more to do in a closer area so they spend more time at attractions and less traveling between attractions. The destination zone and clustering is a great example of planning and development and how integrated the two initiatives should be.

Morrison et al. (2018) suggest tourism involvement should be holistic. The holistic view would include consideration of the product (e.g., attractions, events, support facilities, transportation, infrastructure, etc.). Respective destinations could also ensure people (i.e., hosts, guests) are included to ensure there is community awareness and  inclusion of local businesses, organizations, and residents. Morrison et al. (2018) also suggest visitor management (e.g., signage) and identifying the visitor mix of the destination. Packages (e.g., all inclusive, hotel and tickets to attraction) and programs (e.g., events, festivals, other activities) could also be developed to attract more tourists. However, destinations should approach tourism development and/or redevelopment from a sustainable approach to avoid overtourism (i.e., too many tourists).

Sustainable Tourism Development

Tourism development should also be sustainable and include the three impacts of tourism (i.e., economic, environmental, social/cultural).

The United Nations (n.d.) proposes 17 goals to consider for economic development, which include economic (e.g., “No Poverty”, “Decent Work and Economic Growth”, environmental (e.g., “Clean Water and Sanitation”, “Affordable and Clean Energy”), and social/cultural (e.g., “Good Health and Well Being”, Quality Education”) goals. The 17th goal is “Partnerships For the Goals”, which are very important for tourism destinations, not only in tourism destination planning and development, but other aspects such as marketing and promotion.

Relating development back to the impacts of tourism (i.e., economic, environmental, social/cultural). Sustainable development should include these impacts. Morrison et al. (2018) through applying the triple bottom line to tourism offers some examples of efforts for sustainable development in each of the three areas:

• Social – include residents, be sure development improves or at least maintains locals’ quality of life.
• Environmental – protect resources, educate visitors and residents of ways to protect resources.
• Economic – new employment opportunities, increase spending of visitors, find ways to have businesses purchase locally to minimize leakage.

Tourism Development Strategies

Various strategies exist to develop tourism. For example, flagship attractions (e.g., large amusement parks, National Parks) can provide something unique to market and promote. Development of clusters of attractions (e.g., museum districts) provide several attractions near each other so visitors do not have to drive long distances between attractions. Such districts could also include development of a circuit or trail for transportation via hiking or biking. Aside from man-made attractions, events can be developed by destinations to highlight such things as cultural or other unique aspects of a destination.

Considering all of the possible options of tourism development provides a holistic view. Not only the examples of attractions and events, but packages and programs can developed. Destinations need to also consider all of the elements of tourism in development (i.e., attractions, infrastructure, transportation, built/support facilities, service quality/hospitality). Again, not only businesses and organizations directly involved in tourism, but all stakeholders (e.g., residents, other local businesses) should be included and/or given the opportunity to provide feedback regarding the tourism development plan.

The general goals of tourism development should include improving visitors’ experiences, improving the local economy, not damaging natural resources, and integration throughout the destination so that tourism attractions and venues are not isolated from the rest of the community (Gunn & Var, 2002). Such goals of tourism development require all three sectors (i.e., private, non-profit, government) to be involved and collaborate.

Tourism Development Roles

The private sector, non-profit, government, and local community (e.g., residents) should be involved in tourism development. The private sector role is entrepreneurial and operations (Morrison et al., 2018). The entrepreneurial role is to identify investors to develop man-made attractions, accommodations, food and beverage, and other facilities for tourists. Once built their role becomes to hire workers, manage the operation and ensure it is successful. After all, they are taking a risk as entrepreneurs.

As discussed in the Tourism Organizations section, the non-profit organizations include CVBs to market and manage the destination, chambers of commerce, associations such as a local sports association to attract sporting events to the destination. The CVB typically works with all stakeholders and leads the marketing and sales (e.g., conventions, trade shows) for the destination. Chambers of commerce might be the tourism marketing and sales organization in smaller destinations. However, many of these non-profit types of organizations collaborate with each other, as well as with private or for-profit-sector (e.g., members of CVBs) and government (e.g., hotel tax dollars as a funding source). Non-profit organizations might also operate such things as museums and historical attractions, as well as festivals and events. Such organizations might be local cultural organizations.

The government really does not manage tourism attractions. However, there are exceptions, such as National Parks. Government roles are to stimulate development of tourism, as well as establish and enforce procedures, codes, such as zoning (e.g., business, residential). Government might also get involved for the following reasons: bankruptcy of an attraction where the government needs to help the business in some way, ensure cultural aspects of the community are conserved, encouraging private sector development, find ways to work with potential attractions and other elements of tourism provided through the private sector where businesses may have concerns about being profitable (Morrison et al., 2018).

Government might fulfill some of the above reasons for their role in tourism development by offering incentives (e.g., tax breaks) to entice development by the private sector. Government might also offer a piece of land for private sector development, which lowers the businesses cost to develop at attraction, supporting facilities, or other element of tourism.

While the sectors may have relatively unique roles in tourism development, it is also important the cooperate with each other for the good of the destination. Edgell and Haenisch (1995) offer a model whereby there are times each will work independently of the other two sectors, times when two sectors work together (e.g., private sector and government), and times when all three work together. Edgell and Haenisch (1995) call this “coopetition”. For example, while attractions compete within the destination for tourists to visit respective attractions, if all stakeholders cooperate the develop and manage tourism, the destination will do better overall.

Project Development Analyses

Prior to developing an attraction, hotel, or other element of tourism, there should be an assessment or analysis to determine the feasibility of being successful. Private sector developers who need be profitable will typically do feasibility studies. This may start with a pre-feasibility study, which is essentially to see if the project is even viable. For example, does the project make sense given what the destination already offers? Pre-feasibility studies might be conducted by whatever company or organization is interested in the project. If it does, the next step would be a more robust feasibility study to identify such things as potential sites for the product being considered, assess the market demand of the project, projected revenues and expenses, capital costs to develop the project, and will there be enough return on investment (ROI) if the project is developed. The full feasibility study is often conducted by an independent consulting company to minimize biases. The feasibility studies helps the company or organization identify if the project should move forward or not.

The market demand study within the full feasibility study would include secondary and primary research. Secondary research would include existing data, such as hotel metrics (e.g., supply, demand or rooms sold over a given period of time, occupancy, average daily rate (ADR), and revenue per available room (REVPAR) if the project is a hotel. Primary market analysis requires collection of data. This can include surveys (e.g., visitors of the destination to determine if the potential project is of interest), focus groups to get in-depth insight as to the interest of visitors. Surveys can also be conducted to potentially identify potential demand for the project.

If a project is not intended to be profitable, such as one being developed by the government or non-profit organization, a cost-benefit analysis can be conducted. Such a study essentially identifies the potential benefits to society are worth the cost of the investment.

Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area life cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, XXIV (1), 5-12.

Draper, J., Woosnam, K. M., & Norman, W. C. (2011). Tourism use history: Exploring a new framework for understanding residents’ attitudes toward tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 50 (1), 64-77.

Edgell, D. L., Allen, M. D., Smith, G., & Swanson, L. E. (2008). Tourism policy and planning: Yesterday, today and tomorrow . Elsevier Inc.

Gunn, C. A., & Var, T. (2002). Tourism planning: Basics, concepts, cases (4th ed.). Routledge.

Hall, C. M., & Jenkins, J. M. (1995). Tourism and public policy . Routledge.

International Trade Administration. (n.d.). Tourism Policy Council (TPC). https://www.trade.gov/tourism-policy-council

Mason, P. (2003). Tourism impacts, planning and management . Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

Morrison, A. M., Lehto, X. Y., & Day, J. G. (2018). The tourism system (8th ed.). Kendall Hunt.

Rose, E. A. (1984). Philosophy and purpose in planning. In M. J. Bruton (Ed.), The spirit and purpose of planning (2nd ed., pp. 31-65). Hutchinson.

United Nations. (n.d.). Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/goals

U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Counsular Affairs. (n.d.) Visa Waiver Program. https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/us-visas/tourism-visit/visa-waiver-program.html

GHL 2365 - Tourism Copyright © 2024 by Jason Draper is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Ethics, Culture and Social Responsibility

• Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
• Accessible Tourism

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The convergence between tourism and culture, and the increasing interest of visitors in cultural experiences, bring unique opportunities but also complex challenges for the tourism sector.

“Tourism policies and activities should be conducted with respect for the artistic, archaeological and cultural heritage, which they should protect and pass on to future generations; particular care should be devoted to preserving monuments, worship sites, archaeological and historic sites as well as upgrading museums which must be widely open and accessible to tourism visits”

UN Tourism Framework Convention on Tourism Ethics

Article 7, paragraph 2

This webpage provides UN Tourism resources aimed at strengthening the dialogue between tourism and culture and an informed decision-making in the sphere of cultural tourism. It also promotes the exchange of good practices showcasing inclusive management systems and innovative cultural tourism experiences .  

About Cultural Tourism

According to the definition adopted by the UN Tourism General Assembly, at its 22nd session (2017), Cultural Tourism implies “A type of tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination. These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions”. UN Tourism provides support to its members in strengthening cultural tourism policy frameworks, strategies and product development . It also provides guidelines for the tourism sector in adopting policies and governance models that benefit all stakeholders, while promoting and preserving cultural elements.

Recommendations for Cultural Tourism Key Players on Accessibility 

UN Tourism , Fundación ONCE and UNE issued in September 2023, a set of guidelines targeting key players of the cultural tourism ecosystem, who wish to make their offerings more accessible.

The key partners in the drafting and expert review process were the ICOMOS International Cultural Tourism Committee and the European Network for Accessible Tourism (ENAT) . The ICOMOS experts’ input was key in covering crucial action areas where accessibility needs to be put in the spotlight, in order to make cultural experiences more inclusive for all people.

This guidance tool is also framed within the promotion of the ISO Standard ISO 21902 , in whose development UN Tourism had one of the leading roles.

Download here the English and Spanish version of the Recommendations.

Compendium of Good Practices in Indigenous Tourism

The report is primarily meant to showcase good practices championed by indigenous leaders and associations from the Region. However, it also includes a conceptual introduction to different aspects of planning, management and promotion of a responsible and sustainable indigenous tourism development.

The compendium also sets forward a series of recommendations targeting public administrations, as well as a list of tips promoting a responsible conduct of tourists who decide to visit indigenous communities.

For downloads, please visit the UN Tourism E-library page: Download in English - Download in Spanish .

Weaving the Recovery - Indigenous Women in Tourism

This initiative, which gathers UN Tourism , t he World Indigenous Tourism Alliance (WINTA) , Centro de las Artes Indígenas (CAI) and the NGO IMPACTO , was selected as one of the ten most promising projects amoung 850+ initiatives to address the most pressing global challenges. The project will test different methodologies in pilot communities, starting with Mexico , to enable indigenous women access markets and demonstrate their leadership in the post-COVID recovery.

This empowerment model , based on promoting a responsible tourism development, cultural transmission and fair-trade principles, will represent a novel community approach with a high global replication potential.

Visit the Weaving the Recovery - Indigenous Women in Tourism project webpage.

Inclusive Recovery of Cultural Tourism

The release of the guidelines comes within the context of the International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development 2021 , a UN initiative designed to recognize how culture and creativity, including cultural tourism, can contribute to advancing the SDGs.  

UN Tourism Inclusive Recovery Guide, Issue 4: Indigenous Communities

Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism

The Recommendations on Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism provide guidance to tourism stakeholders to develop their operations in a responsible and sustainable manner within those indigenous communities that wish to:

• Open up to tourism development, or
• Improve the management of the existing tourism experiences within their communities.

They were prepared by the UN Tourism Ethics, Culture and Social Responsibility Department in close consultation with indigenous tourism associations, indigenous entrepreneurs and advocates. The Recommendations were endorsed by the World Committee on Tourism Ethics and finally adopted by the UN Tourism General Assembly in 2019, as a landmark document of the Organization in this sphere.

Who are these Recommendations targeting?

• Tour operators and travel agencies
• Tour guides
• Indigenous communities
• Other stakeholders such as governments, policy makers and destinations

The Recommendations address some of the key questions regarding indigenous tourism:

Download PDF:

• Recommendations on Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism
• Recomendaciones sobre el desarrollo sostenible del turismo indígena, ESP

UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conferences on Tourism and Culture

The UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conferences on Tourism and Culture bring together Ministers of Tourism and Ministers of Culture with the objective to identify key opportunities and challenges for a stronger cooperation between these highly interlinked fields. Gathering tourism and culture stakeholders from all world regions the conferences which have been hosted by Cambodia, Oman, Türkiye and Japan have addressed a wide range of topics, including governance models, the promotion, protection and safeguarding of culture, innovation, the role of creative industries and urban regeneration as a vehicle for sustainable development in destinations worldwide.

Fourth UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference on Tourism and Culture: Investing in future generations. Kyoto, Japan. 12-13 December 2019 Kyoto Declaration on Tourism and Culture: Investing in future generations ( English, French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian and Japanese )

Third UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference on Tourism and Culture : For the Benefit of All. Istanbul, Türkiye. 3 -5 December 2018 Istanbul Declaration on Tourism and Culture: For the Benefit of All ( English , French , Spanish , Arabic , Russian )

Second UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference’s on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. 11-12 December 2017 Muscat Declaration on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development ( English , French , Spanish , Arabic , Russian )

First UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference’s on Tourism and Culture: Building a new partnership. Siem Reap, Cambodia. 4-6 February 2015 Siem Reap Declaration on Tourism and Culture – Building a New Partnership Model ( English )

UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage  

The first UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage provides comprehensive baseline research on the interlinkages between tourism and the expressions and skills that make up humanity’s intangible cultural heritage (ICH). 

Through a compendium of case studies drawn from across five continents, the report offers in-depth information on, and analysis of, government-led actions, public-private partnerships and community initiatives.

These practical examples feature tourism development projects related to six pivotal areas of ICH: handicrafts and the visual arts; gastronomy; social practices, rituals and festive events; music and the performing arts; oral traditions and expressions; and, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe.

Highlighting innovative forms of policy-making, the UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage recommends specific actions for stakeholders to foster the sustainable and responsible development of tourism by incorporating and safeguarding intangible cultural assets.

UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage

• UN Tourism Study
• Summary of the Study

Studies and research on tourism and culture commissioned by UN Tourism

• Tourism and Culture Synergies, 2018
• UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage, 2012
• Big Data in Cultural Tourism – Building Sustainability and Enhancing Competitiveness (e-unwto.org)

Outcomes from the UN Tourism Affiliate Members World Expert Meeting on Cultural Tourism, Madrid, Spain, 1–2 December 2022

UN Tourism and the Region of Madrid – through the Regional Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Sports – held the World Expert Meeting on Cultural Tourism in Madrid on 1 and 2 December 2022. The initiative reflects the alliance and common commitment of the two partners to further explore the bond between tourism and culture. This publication is the result of the collaboration and discussion between the experts at the meeting, and subsequent contributions.

Relevant Links

• 3RD UN Tourism/UNESCO WORLD CONFERENCE ON TOURISM AND CULTURE ‘FOR THE BENEFIT OF ALL’

Photo credit of the Summary's cover page:  www.banglanatak.com

Coding the future: UNESCO webinar on sustainable tourism fosters community empowerment with digital storytelling

UNESCO’s webinar ‘Harnessing Digital Tools for Greater Community Involvement in Sustainable Tourism Narratives’ took place via Zoom conferencing on 20 March 2024. The webinar—the third in an ongoing UNESCO Bangkok heritage project, ‘Achieving Sustainable Tourism with Intangible Cultural Heritage and Creative City Network in Waterway Cities of ASEAN’ (2023–2024)—aimed to foster community-driven sustainable tourism initiatives in the ASEAN region. Both the webinar series and its umbrella programme are supported by ASEAN-Türkiye Cooperation,  Designated Areas for Sustainable Tourism Administration (DASTA) ,  International Training Center for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region under the auspices of UNESCO (CRIHAP) ,  K11  and  ONYX Hospitality Group . Webinar sessions are facilitated by City Connext and b.Consulting Cambodia.

Keynote remarks were provided by Ms Pattamon Runchavanont, Head of Solutions Mapping, at the Accelerator Lab Thailand, United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP). She cited the central role to be played by local people in community-based tourism (CBT) management, stating, ‘[We need to] empower [communities] as both drivers and beneficiaries of sustainable tourism efforts, and digital tools have a pivotal role in facilitating their involvement.’ She also highlighted the power of storytelling and digital platforms in 1) amplifying community voices; 2) showcasing local traditions and histories; and 3) integrating diverse perspectives into tourism narratives. The keynote essentially advocated for repositioning tourism development towards greater sustainability as a driver for balanced regional economic, social, and environmental growth.

The webinar’s following panel discussion featured Prof. Dr Supitcha Tovivich from Silpakorn University (Thailand), Mr Philip Kao from Siem Reap Tourism Club (Cambodia), Prof. Dr Amran Bin Hamzah from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Dr Somphavanh Seukpanya, an independent Lao tourism consultant, Ms Sirada Pichayapaiboon from The Roots Routes (Thailand); and Mr Pat Pataranutaporn from MIT Media Lab.

The panelists delved into strategies for overcoming challenges and building capacity in digital tourism initiatives; fostering equitable access to digital platforms for community engagement; utilizing innovative technologies for sustainable tourism; inserting digital marketing strategies for community-led tourism; and promoting collaborative efforts across sectors to support local tourism initiatives. The importance of ‘inclusive digital design’ was also cited as a critical component of successful tourism initiatives needing to accommodate diverse needs of their tourism clients, such as those from aging and disabled populations. The use of free digital platforms already widely available to the industry was also recommended to facilitate inclusion among all societal sectors.

Ms Pichayapaiboon, as a co-founder of a digital community tourism platform, The Roots Routes, stressed the importance of adapting digital platforms to the needs of local communities, especially towards helping those communities overcome ‘cultural and generational’ divides and ‘facilitating easier access to digital tools.’ 

In comments lending a perspective from Lao PDR, Dr Seukpanya shed light on the country’s digital divide, emphasizing the need for infrastructure improvement and external support to empower communities through storytelling, and highlighting the role of such infrastructure in showcasing local geography, culture, and natural beauty. According to Dr Seukpanya, the improvement of digital tools is essential, as ‘social media can unveil hidden gems within communities, [thus] attracting tourists to lesser-known locales and fostering economic growth.’ 

Mr Kao discussed an example of recent digital capacity-building in Siem Reap, Cambodia, commenting, ‘Training locals to use digital platforms for promoting tourism products is essential.’ From a more technical standpoint, Mr Paraeanupaporn, a researcher at MIT, highlighted the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in sustainable tourism development, such as through the creation of interactive experiences which connect tourists with cultural heritage and nature. 

The dialogue underscored the transformative potential of digital platforms in revitalizing local markets, preserving cultural heritage, and fostering economic growth. Dr Tovivich and Dr Bin Hamzah emphasized the importance of collaborative partnerships among public and private sectors, NGOs, and academia in building digital and entrepreneurial skills within tourism communities. 

Both speakers highlighted successful initiatives that leverage digital tools to create immersive tourism experiences, enhance storytelling, and promote community engagement, thereby helping to achieve sustainable tourism fundamentals.

UNESCO is organizing more seminars on sustainable tourism for ASEAN professionals until June 2024. Receive the latest update on planned events and more information by visiting the project portal and the project page .

#SustainableTourism #IntangibleCulturalHeritage #CreativeCities #ASEANWaterwayCities 

Reporting for this article was contributed by Yizheng Gu, an intern supporting the work of the Culture Unit of the UNESCO Regional Office in Bangkok and Sara Ferrera, an intern supporting the work of Alliance Française.

More from UNESCO Bangkok

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• SDG: SDG 9 - Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
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Do positive and negative shocks of tourism development affect income inequality in a developed country?

Ngoc Bui Hoang

Finance, Economic and Management Research Group, Ho Chi Minh City Open University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

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We confirm that all sources of data were presented in the paper. We do not own data, and we do not have any special access privileges that others would not have.

Income inequality is an essential cause of violence, stagnant development, and political instability. This study will examine the positive and negative shocks in tourism development, and the distribution of the interaction between tourism development, economic growth, human capital, globalization, and income inequality will be discussed in Singapore, a developed and top-visited country. By adopting autoregressive distributed lag and non-linear autoregressive distributed lag approaches for panel data from 1978 to 2022, the results indicate an asymmetric cointegration among variables, and positive and negative changes in tourism development lead to decreased income inequality. More specifically, the asymmetric effect of tourism is found both in the short- and long-term, and positive shock has a greater impact than negative shock. At the same time, the findings also reveal that economic growth and globalization enhance, while human capital negatively affects income inequality in Singapore. These findings strengthen the belief of Singapore policy-makers and recommend several significant lessons for developing countries to promote tourism, sustainable development, and reduce income inequality.

1. Introduction

Income inequality (IE) is a social problem, and it is considered an undesirable consequence of economic policies issued by the government over a long time. Unfortunately, it has increased at varied rates in almost all countries [ 1 ]. Income inequality develops depending on the government’s perspective, level of awareness, and residents’ opposition. The widening gap between the rich and poor might limit the opportunities of poorer people and, over time, might cause violence and social and political instability [ 2 , 3 ]. Therefore, reducing income inequality and then wholly eliminating it is the desire of many governments and people worldwide. Thus, economic policies that help reduce income inequality are always sought and welcomed [ 4 – 6 ]. Tourist development (TO) is often expected to be an effective policy for alleviating poverty because it brings a multiplicity of benefits to a country, such as promoting infrastructure, attracting foreign direct investment, generating new jobs, and stimulating cultural change, thereby it could help reduce income inequality [ 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 ]. However, Qiao and Chen [ 9 ] and Carrascal Incera and Fernández [ 10 ] revealed that a significant part of the labor force in tourism is related to self-employment or family enterprises. Njoya and Seetaram [ 11 ] also noted that TO requires investment and management experience, and poor people do not have these inputs. In some cases, a significant portion of tourism revenue may leak out of the local economy through imports, foreign-owned businesses, or multinational hotel chains. This can limit the trickle-down effect of tourism revenue and exacerbate income inequality [ 4 ]. Notably, Kinyondo and Pelizzo [ 12 ] argued that tourism has long been seen as a source of social inequality in Kenya, while Khan, Bibiet al. [ 13 ] revealed that there is a relationship between TO, terrorism, and inequality in Pakistan. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the impact of tourism on IE and its consequences has profound implications for policy-makers in planning strategies that prioritize local participation, equitable distribution of tourism benefits, and protect the rights and livelihoods of the poor.

Unfortunately, the debate on whether tourism can help reduce inequality is still ongoing. Studies on this topic have different conclusions and are not definitive. For example, Uzar and Eyuboglu [ 14 ], Porto and Espinola [ 15 ] found that tourism development increases inequality, while Nguyen, Schinckuset al. [ 3 ], Fang, Gozgoret al. [ 6 ], Shahbaz, Solarinet al. [ 16 ] suggested that tourism can lead to fairer income distribution. Another study by Fang, Gozgoret al. [ 6 ] revealed that TO significantly negatively influences IE in developing countries and has an insignificant impact in developed nations. Consequently, some researchers are studying how tourism development affects income distribution by looking at different factors like income, tax, price, and risk. The goal of this exploration is to fully comprehend how tourism impacts economic and social aspects of a country. Some reasons are given to explain the impact of TO on IE, such as ( i ) tourism can reduce income inequality by creating jobs for the poorest workers. However, tourism development may also lead to higher income inequality by increasing demand for infrastructure, benefiting the wealthier population [ 6 ]; ( ii ) the relationship between tourism and income distribution depends on institutions. A better institutional environment and a suitable tax policy can boost tourism opportunities, and in turn, tourism activities can also contribute to creating a more favorable institutional environment [ 3 ].

Singapore presents itself as a captivating context for investigating this association. Analysis of the relationship between tourism development and income inequality is essential for Singapore for the following reasons. First, the tourism industry generated around 527,500 jobs and contributed SGD 52.5 billion to the economy in 2020 [ 17 ]. Singapore’s tourism development is an enticing example for emerging countries, as it enhances per capita income. Singapore, currently ranked among the top 10 countries in the world with the highest income, boasts an impressive per capita income of $60,729 per year (at the fixed price of 2010). However, it is important to note that such prosperity does not necessarily address the prevailing income disparity between the affluent and the less fortunate within Singapore. Startling figures from a recent report on income inequality indicate that in 2010, the income gap between the higher and lower-income classes was $9,288. Shockingly, this gap has widened to $12,840 in 2020, highlighting a growing challenge of eradicating inequality for Singaporean administrators. Second, the significance of tourism section has long been identified, so the Singaporean government has consistently devoted resources to fostering the growth of this industry. At the same time, Singapore has a diverse and well-integrated culture. These characteristics explain Singapore’s spectacular achievement in tourism development, nowadays, it is a top-visited market in the world. Therefore, an analysis of the impact of tourism development on income distribution in Singapore might provide a practical lesson for emerging countries in planning tourism development strategies. Due to the two above reasons, the study is conducted to answer the research questions below:

Does tourism development affect income distribution in Singapore?

Is it the symmetric or asymmetric impact? If the asymmetric influence is found, how do positive and negative changes in tourism development affect income inequality?

2. Literature review

The interaction between economic growth and income inequality.

A fundamental question in sustainable development policies is whether economic growth retards or accelerates income inequality. The pioneering study of Kuznets [ 18 ] predicted that there is an inverted U-shape relationship between economic growth and income inequality. Following this prediction, many scholars investigated whether, how, and to what extent economic growth could affect income distribution. However, the answer remains elusive. A study that found a negative relationship is the study of Braun, Parro and Valenzuela [ 19 ], who conducted research that evaluated the major prediction of their model in terms of the influence of income disparity on growth at various degrees of financial development. They discovered that greater income inequality is related to weaker economic development by utilizing pooled OLS, FEM, and REM approaches in 150 countries between 1978 and 2012. Furthermore, they discovered that as economies’ financial development levels rise, such an influence becomes substantially less pronounced.

In another study, Royuela, Veneri and Ramos [ 20 ] examined the relationship between income inequality and growth in 15 OECD nations from 2003 to 2013. It integrates household survey data and macroeconomic statistics from 15 OECD nations to cover over 200 similar areas. Their econometric findings showed an overall negative relationship between disparities and economic development since the beginning of the economic crisis. The sort of urban structure influences this connection. Higher disparities appear to be more destructive to growth in regions typified by medium to large-sized cities, whereas small cities and rural areas appear to be less affected. Likewise, Breunig and Majeed [ 21 ] recently re-examined the relationship between inequality and economic development in 152 countries. The study employed GMM and discovered that inequality had a detrimental influence on growth from 1956 to 2011. They also discovered that when both poverty and inequality were taken into account, the negative impact of inequality on growth was concentrated in nations with high poverty rates. More precisely, they found that when poverty (daily income below US$ 1.9), the impact of inequality on economic growth is greater.

Some studies show a positive relationship between economic growth and income inequality. Scholl and Klasen [ 22 ] reviewed the inequality-growth link, focusing on the significance of transition (post-Soviet) nations. They discovered a positive relationship between inequality and growth in the total sample using FE, GMM, and IV estimation methodologies driven by transition nations. Brueckner and Lederman [ 23 ] researched the connection between inequality and GDP per capita growth. Using panel data from 1970 to 2010, the researchers discovered that increased income disparity boosted transitory growth in low-income countries while having the opposite impact in high-income nations. However, Benos and Karagiannis [ 24 ] investigated the link between top income inequality and growth in the United States due to physical and human capital buildup. They determined that increases in inequality did not affect growth by utilizing 2SLS and GMM on an annual panel of the United States-level data from 1929 to 2013.

Application to Singapore, a high-income and top-visited country, Agiomirgianakis, Serenis and Tsounis [ 25 ] noted that the effective timing of economic policies actions in Singapore’s tourism industry is not consistent. Moreover, many previous studies [ 22 , 26 ] confirmed that an increase in income of different population strata is not uniform. The rich will get richer, while the poor tend to get poorer. Therefore, the hypothesis is postulated that:

• Hypothesis 1 : Economic growth positively affects income distribution in Singapore .

The relationship between tourism development, globalization, human capital, and income inequality

Some studies showed that tourism contributes to increasing income inequality. In particular, Chi [ 27 ] indicated that the long-run link between tourist revenue and income inequality differs across industrialized and developing nations. In developing countries, income disparity worsens as tourist revenue grows, improves after the first turning point is achieved, and worsens again after the second turning point. Similarly, Oviedo-García, González-Rodríguez and Vega-Vázquez [ 28 ] revealed that tourist income has not relieved poverty and has obviously failed to lessen wealth disparity.

It is plausible that activities associated with tourism might have varying effects on economic disparity, to the point that it has been statistically demonstrated that domestic tourism can make income disparity worse, while foreign tourism can reverse the situation (Nguyen et al., 2021). In contrast to the common idea that tourism contributes to economic expansion and reduces poverty levels, Zhang’s study suggests that more tourism leads to greater income disparity (Zhang, 2021), especially in developing countries (Alam & Paramati, 2016). However, Uzar & Eyuboglu (2019) and Li et al., (2016) assert that tourism helps alleviate economic inequality, and Turkey’s tourism is substantiated to affect income distribution. In Raza and Shad’s paper, with the proviso that the countries make the expansion of their tourism industries a priority, they will be able to reduce the economic inequality that exists in the region (Raza & Shah, 2017). Thus, it is necessary to identify whether Singaporean tourism has a symmetric or asymmetric influence on its income inequality. Based on the above studies, the hypothesis is given as:

• Hypothesis 2 : Tourism development reduces income inequality in Singapore

One of the reported advantages of globalization is that it encourages the development of new employment, which, in turn, leads to an improvement in the standard of living of people all over the world and a reduction in poverty [ 29 ]. While Ghosh and Mitra [ 30 ] indicate that the distribution of income within highly developed countries is mostly unaffected by the growth of the tourism industry, [ 31 ] emphasize that more globalization causes a decline in the economic discrepancy that exists in that country. On the other hand, globalization magnifies the distribution of wealth by creating a skills gap in corporate operations, which in turn leads to a wider disparity in income [ 32 ]. By the same token, globalization has significantly widened the income gap between the rich and the poor in developing countries [ 6 ]. Therefore, globalization acts as a control variable in determining the relationship between tourism and income inequality.

According to social scientists, the term “human capital” refers to the attributes of a person that are deemed valuable to the production process. These attributes might include knowledge, skills, expertise, good health, education, and so on. The findings of Tsaurai [ 33 ] reverberate the findings of Becker [ 34 ], who noted that high levels of human capital development mean that individuals are talented, educated, and trained. They are also believed to be more productive, more marketable, and more likely to find a job that pays a higher salary. Therefore, investments in human capital development will allow developing nations to nurture a labor force of better quality and capable of maximizing earnings from tourism [ 30 ].

Some scholars confirmed the adverse effects of human capital and income inequality. Some examples include Ajide and Alimi [ 35 ], who found that the marginal effect of interactions between human capital measures and income inequality indicators is negative. Hu [ 2 ] pointed out the influence of income disparity on human capital inequality in 31 Chinese provinces, municipalities, and autonomous areas from 1996 to 2018. On the contrary, Chani, Janet al. [ 36 ] confirmed the presence of a long-run link and the causal relationship between human capital inequality and income inequality, and the Johanson cointegration and Granger causality tests are utilized. Suhendra, Istikomahet al. [ 37 ] used a panel data model with a fixed effect estimate for data from 34 Indonesia’s provinces from 2013 to 2019 and found that human capital has a negative and significant effect on income inequality. According to the above researches and Table 1 , the hypotheses are specified as:

Notes: (+): positive impact; (-) negative impact.

• Hypothesis 3 : Human capital contributes to reducing income inequality in Singapore
• Hypothesis 4 : There is a positive impact of globalization on income distribution

Of course, none of the above studies and Table 1 could fully present the literature on the association between tourism development, economic growth, globalization, human capital, and income distribution. However, these studies also reveal that some natural issues have not been identified. One of the questions is whether the influence of TO on IE is symmetric or asymmetric. In Singapore, Khoi, Le and Ngoc [ 41 ] also indicated that the impact of TO on ecological footprint is asymmetric. Ozturk, Cetin and Demir [ 42 ] revealed that positive and negative income inequality shocks positively affect CO 2 emissions in Turkey. In addition, the asymmetric effect of other macroeconomic variables, such as financial development [ 26 ], foreign direct investment [ 48 ], energy consumption [ 49 , 50 ], and exchange rate [ 51 ], could be found in previous studies. That means linear models may not be appropriate to explain the impacts of TO, and raise doubt about the effectiveness of suggested policies. From a methodological standpoint, an analysis including linear and non-linear frameworks gives a comprehensive understanding of the role and marginal effect of tourism shock on income inequality. Katrakilidis and Trachanas [ 43 ], and Ahmed, Zhang and Cary [ 44 ] pointed out that if the relationship between these variables is asymmetric, the policy implications based on the linear framework could be unreliable. Hence, this work aims to explore the role of tourism in reducing IE in Singapore by considering economic growth, globalization, and human capital in which tourism activities occur. The contribution of this study are summarized in detail:

• Despite the abundance of previous studies on links between tourism and income inequality, the negative and positive changes in tourism development that might lead to effects of different magnitude or directions in income have been ignored. If the nexus between TO and IE is asymmetric, the policy implications based on symmetric methods can be unreliable. This study employs the linear ARDL and non-linear ARDL approaches to identify a symmetric or asymmetric effect of tourism on income inequality to provide a comprehensive understanding of tourism development in Singapore.
• Globalization and human capital are considered the keys to tourism development. However, the impact of two factors on income inequality is still fragmented and unclear in Singapore. In this study, globalization and human capital play as control variables in identifying the tourism-income inequality nexus.
• From 1978 to 2019, Singapore’s economy suffered two financial crises (in 1997 and 2008), implying that the data might have some structural breaks. Therefore, an advanced unit root technique was also employed to probe structural breaks in the data, which is superior to many other tests regarding size and accuracy in identifying breaks. Along with the results obtained from the non-linear ARDL approach, the findings of this study strengthen administrators’ belief in promoting tourism and reducing income inequality in Singapore.

3. Methodology

Several factors affect the links between tourism—income inequality nexus, such as institutions [ 3 ], urbanization [ 45 ], human capital [ 46 ], and globalization [ 31 ]. Based on these studies, to identify the asymmetric effects of TO on income inequality in Singapore, our model is proposed in detail:

where, the IE variable is income inequality (measured by Gini coefficient), and TO is measured by the number of international visitors. GDP , HC , and Glob variables are economic growth, human capital, and globalization. Two variables ( TO and GDP ) are transformed into natural logarithms to smooth data, while IE , HC , and Glob are used as original data. Annual data is given by the Department of Statistics Singapore (for tourism, economic growth variable), Swiss Institute of Economics (globalization), and Federal Reserve Economic Data (human capital) from 1978 to 2022.

To examine the long-run association among the study variables, following the ARDL approach introduced by Pesaran and Shin [ 47 ], Eq 1 can be written as:

where, Δ represents the first difference, and ε is the error term. β i ( i = 1,..,5) are long-run coefficients, while α i ( i = 1,..,5) are short-run coefficients.

To probe asymmetric effects, the study follows the suggestion of Shin, Yu and Greenwood-Nimmo [ 48 ] to separate negative and positive changes in TO variable, as specific:

where, ln T O 0 is the minimum number of international visitors, ln T O t + and ln T O t − are partial sum processes of the positive and negative changes in tourism, which are calculated as details:

Therefore, Eq 2 can be written as a non-linear ARDL(p,q) approach, as follows:

The null long-run asymmetric hypothesis is tested by H 0,LR : − ( β 2 + / β 1 ) = − ( β 2 − / β 1 ) against the alternative hypothesis H 1,LR : − ( β 2 + / β 1 ) ≠ − ( β 2 − / β 1 ) . Similarly, the null short-run asymmetric hypothesis is checked:

H 0 , S R : ∑ j = 0 q α 2 j + = ∑ j = 0 q α 2 j − against the alternative hypothesis H 1 , S R : ∑ j = 0 q α 2 j + ≠ ∑ j = 0 q α 2 j − The asymmetric cumulative dynamic multiplier effects of a unit change in tourism on income inequality are specified:

Note that as h → ∞ then m h + → λ 1 + , m h − → λ 1 − , where λ 1 + and λ 1 − are the asymmetric long-run coefficients calculated as λ 1 + = − ( β 2 + / β 1 ) and λ 1 − = − ( β 2 − / β 1 ) , respectively.

4. Empirical results

Based on the advantages of geographic location and many effective tourism development policies, Singapore is one of Asia’s leading international passengers nowadays. In 2019, Singapore experienced a record number of visitors (attracting 19.1 million international visitors), following strong year-on-year growth in visitor numbers since 2015 [ 17 ]. Even so, Singapore has managed to market itself as a must-visit tourist destination in its own right, attracting repeat visitors by offering unique city experiences such as the Gardens by the Bay, and integrated resorts boasting casinos and amusement parks. The descriptive statistics of variables are shown in Table 2 .

Table 2 shows that the highest value of income inequality is 39.30 percent, the human capital is 4.37 points, and the globalization index is 84.69 percent, but the lowest values in these three variables are 36.60, 1.65, and 62.78, respectively. The correlation matrix among variables is presented in Table 3 . Accordingly, the correlation between IE and HC , lnTO , lnGDP , and Glob is 0.41, 0.44, 0,69, and 0,80, respectively, implying that there is a medium correlation between examined variables.

Unit root tests

According to Pesaran and Shin [ 47 ], it is necessary to check the unit root before applying the ARDL approach because if any series is stationary at the second difference I(2), the estimated coefficients will not be valid. Moreover, another issue of time series data analysis is a structural break. To accomplish this, the augmented Dickey-Fuller [ 49 ], and Lee & Strazicich tests [ 50 ] were employed. Results in Table 4 show that all variables are stationarity at the first difference, and no variables are stationarity at the second difference, which implies the first condition to apply ARDL and non-linear ARDL approach is satisfied [ 51 ]. Furthermore, the Lee & Strazicich test provides break years. However, the results are inconsistent, and it could not help choosing a fit break year. Table 3 also indicates that the optimal lag length of IE variable is three, while the optimal order of lnGDP and HC variables is two. Thus, the optimal ARDL model is ARDL(3,0,2,2,0).

Note: The ADF test is chosen based on the Akaike Information Criterion with intercept and trend. ***, ** and * respectively denote significance levels of 1%; 5% and 10%.

Cointegration test

The findings of the unit root test indicated that our data series is integrated. Thus, the linear and non-linear Bound test of cointegration was applied. The result of two tests in Table 5 reveals that the F-statistic value in Eq 3 (= 9.855) is greater than the value of upper critical Bound at the level of 1 percent significance (= 5.06). Likewise, the result of t-statistic test (= -6.73) confirms that the same conclusion is smaller than the critical value of t-statistic test (= -4.79). These outcomes in Table 5 reveal that the non-linear ARDL approach is best for our model, and applying the linear ARDL approach might provide biased results.

The short-run and long-run symmetric and asymmetric impacts

The short-run and long-run linear ARDL findings are presented in Table 6 , while the outcomes of non-linear ARDL are shown in Table 7 . In the long term, the coefficient of lnTO obtained from the symmetric ARDL approach is insignificant, implying no relationship between tourism and income inequality in Singapore. However, the results obtained from the asymmetric ARDL approach indicate that the influence of tourism on income inequality is evident. More specifically, the estimated coefficients of positive changes ( lnTO + ) and negative changes ( lnTO - ) are -0.461 and 0.240, respectively. The long-run asymmetric Wald test in the lowest of Table 7 provides evidence to reject the null hypothesis (W LR = 23.29, p-value = 0.000).

Note: The superscripts “+” and “-” denote positive and negative partial sums. χ S C 2 , χ F F 2 , χ N O R M 2 , χ H E T 2 denote LM tests for serial correlation, functional form, normality, and heteroskedasticity. The value in brackets is the corresponding p-value, respectively.

Likewise, the estimated coefficient of Δ lnTO + variable (= -0.316, p-value = 0.006) is significant, while Δ lnTO - variable is not significant (= -0.083, p-value = 0.109), and the short-run asymmetric Wald test also rejects the null hypothesis (W SR = 6.21, p-value = 0.019). These findings confirm that the impact of tourism development on income inequality is the asymmetry in both the short- and long-run. More specifically, a 1 percent increase in tourism leads to a 0.461 percent decrease in income inequality. Similarly, a 1 percent decrease in tourism leads to a 0.240 percent decrease in income inequality [ 48 ]. Hence, the positive changes in tourism have a greater effect than negative changes. Fig 1 also confirms this conclusion.

Similarly, Table 7 indicated that the estimated coefficients of lnGDP , HC , and Glob variables are significant in the long term. Economic growth and globalization positively impact income inequality, while increasing human capital might decrease income inequality. In the short term, only lnGDP variable has a positive influence and significant (= 0.752, p-value = 0.012). The estimated coefficient of CointEq(-1) variable is -0.479 and significant, and all diagnostic tests in Table 7 , such as serial correlation, functional form, normality, and heteroskedasticity, have been successfully satisfied. In addition, Figs ​ Figs2 2 and ​ and3 3 demonstrate that both the CUSUM and CUSUMSQ lines comfortably fall within the critical bounds at a significant level of 5 percent, implying that Eq 3 remains stable [ 52 , 53 ]. When all conditions of the non-linear ARDL approach are met, this study ensures that the findings are reliable and relevant for further analysis and the development of policy recommendations.

Results of the causality test

The findings from ARDL and NARDL approaches have demonstrated the short- and long-run impacts of tourism development, economic growth, globalization, and human development on income inequality in Singapore. However, information about the causal relationship between these variables is also essential in suggesting lessons and policies. So, the Toda and Yamamoto procedure is employed. According to Sankaran, Kumaret al. [ 54 ], Ha and Ngoc [ 55 ], the Toda-Yamamoto procedure yields robust estimates irrespective of the integration and cointegration properties of the variables. If the value of χ 2 (Chi_square) in the Toda-Yamamoto test has a p-value less than 0.05, implying the null hypothesis is rejected. According to Table 8 and Fig 4 , the study finds a uni-directional causality running from income inequality to tourism development. Similarly, there is a uni-directional causality running from income distribution to globalization, while a bi-directional causality between human capital and income inequality is also confirmed. Overall, these findings are in line with the outcome of regression analysis. Hence, it allows us to conclude that our findings are convincing to suggest policies.

Note: →, ↔, and ≠ denotes a uni-directional, bi-directional, and no causality, respectively.

The empirical results suggest that international visitors contribute to reducing income inequalities in Singapore. That means hypothesis 2 is accepted. This finding is in line with Njoya and Seetaram [ 11 ] for Kenya, Li, Chenet al. [ 56 ] for China, and Uzar and Eyuboglu [ 14 ] for Turkey. However, it is inconsistent with Alam and Paramati [ 57 ]. The main contribution of this study shows that the influence of tourism on income inequality is asymmetric both in the short- and long-run. To explain for these findings, some reasons are given: ( i ) Singapore has an effective government and better institutions. It is easy to recognize that a dynamic government might create more opportunities for economic activities, such as tourism and financial services, while institutional security might attract more visitors [ 3 ]; ( ii ) Singapore has strong tax laws. Therefore, the tax evasion and tax avoidance acts are not fully valid in Singapore [ 58 ]; ( iii ) Singapore has a developed education system, giving individuals more jobs and a better income. However, a significant part of the labor force in the tourism industry in Singapore is involved in self-employment or family business, and tourism only benefits the owners. Hence, this might explain why the income inequality index of Singapore is not ranked the lowest in the world.

The positive coefficient of the lnGDP variable suggests that economic growth enhances income inequality in Singapore, implying that hypothesis 1 is also accepted. The finding is also similar to several studies, such as Scholl and Klasen [ 22 ], Benos and Karagiannis [ 24 ], and Elveren and Özgür [ 59 ]. In fact, Singapore has implemented several policies and initiatives to address income inequality and promote economic growth. For example, Singapore’s government has reformed tax policies and applied progressive taxation. This tax system follows a progressive structure, with higher-income earners paying a higher percentage of taxes. Another policy is the “SkillsFuture” program issued by the government, which provides training subsidies and support for individuals to upgrade their skills and stay relevant in the evolving job market. However, the increase in economic growth in the past few decades changed the income structure of individuals and classes. Despite the government’s efforts, income inequality remains an ongoing challenge, and further measures may be needed to create a more equitable distribution of income and wealth in Singapore.

The finding also indicates that hypothesis 4 is accepted, and globalization positively drives income inequality in Singapore. This conclusion aligns with Haseeb, Suryantoet al. [ 60 ], Chishti, Ullahet al. [ 61 ]. Cristiano and İpek [ 62 ] noted that governance institution is a necessary condition to reduce the negative impact of globalization on inequality. In fact, Singapore’s economy heavily depends on trade and foreign investment. So, Singapore’s administrators have implemented policies and initiatives to create an attractive business environment, including favorable tax regimes, ease of doing business, and robust legal and regulatory frameworks to attract multinational corporations. Besides, Singapore’s government has actively pursued free trade agreements with various countries and regions worldwide, emphasizing connectivity and innovation to enhance market access and reduce trade barriers, allowing Singaporean businesses to tap into global markets. However, globalization can widen income disparities within and between individuals [ 60 ] due to those with better access to education, technology, and capital are more likely to benefit from globalization, while those with limited access to such resources may be left behind.

Hypothesis 3 is also confirmed, and human development stimulates income equality in Singapore. This is not surprising since Singapore’s human capital per person index has rapidly increased along with GDP per capita. In the long term, Singapore has achieved high levels of income per capita, low unemployment rates, and a high standard of living. This country also has invested heavily in education, ensuring access to quality schooling for all citizens. Nowadays, Singapore has a well-developed public education system, which ensures holistic human development for all Singaporeans. Moreover, scholarships, bursaries, and financial aid programs are available to support students from lower-income backgrounds. This policy helps to reduce unequal access and improve income for individuals and workers.

5. Conclusion and policy implications

This study is conducted to probe the symmetric and asymmetric effects of tourism development on income inequality in Singapore, as well as economic growth, globalization, and human development in the models. To achieve this goal, first, the study employed the unit root tests proposed by Dickey and Fuller [ 49 ], and Lee and Strazicich [ 50 ] with two structural breaks. Next, the Bound test technique introduced by Pesaran, Shin and Smith [ 51 ] was applied to assess the symmetric and asymmetric cointegration. Afterward, the symmetric ARDL method proposed by Pesaran and Shin [ 47 ], and the asymmetric ARDL approach given by Shin, Yu and Greenwood-Nimmo [ 48 ] were utilized to estimate the short- and long-run impact coefficients. Finally, the Wald test was adopted to conclude that the impact of tourism development on income inequality in Singapore is symmetry or asymmetry.

With a strict econometric strategy, our outcome provides some useful findings. Firstly , the study concludes that the impact of tourism on income inequality is asymmetric. More precisely, the impact of an increase in tourism development on income inequality has a larger effect than a decrease in tourism development. In addition, the causal test confirms a uni-directional causality from income inequality to tourism development. Secondly , the study also indicates that increasing economic growth and globalization might increase income inequality. Thirdly , improving human capital stimulates income distribution more equally in Singapore. Furthermore, there is a bi-directional causality running from human capital to income inequality.

Policy implications

Based on the findings, the study delineates several significant policies that would considerably help Singapore’s government reduce income inequality by developing the tourism industry, improving human capital, and maintaining sustainable development.

First and foremost, we suggest that policy-makers in Singapore should maintain appropriate policies to strengthen the tourism industry and encourage community-based tourism initiatives. That means the government should empower local communities to participate in decision-making, provide training and capacity-building programs, and promote the development of small-scale enterprises and cooperative ventures. Besides, replacing outdated regulations and laws is necessary, especially in tax and transfer policies in tourism. Some policies, such as minimum wage regulations, collective bargaining rights, and workplace safety standards, also help reduce income inequality in Singapore. In addition, we suggest that Singapore’s administrators focus on providing vocational training, promoting entrepreneurship, and fostering partnerships between tourism industry stakeholders and educational institutions. By equipping individuals with the necessary skills and knowledge, they can access higher-paying jobs within the tourism sector, reducing income disparities.

Finally, enhancing economic growth and expanding globalization must be accompanied by the improvement of human capital in order to mitigate the potential increase in income inequality. The government of Singapore should consider implementing social safety nets and welfare programs to reduce income inequality and provide support for vulnerable segments of society. These initiatives are essential to provide a safety net for individuals and families facing economic hardships, through targeted cash transfers, unemployment benefits, healthcare assistance, and other social services. By doing so, Singapore’s government can ensure essential social protection for its citizens and mitigate the adverse effects of income inequality. These actions will lead to a more inclusive society and promote more equitable economic growth. The government can contribute to a fairer distribution of resources and opportunities by supporting those in need and reducing income disparities. It is important to note that the design and implementation of these programs should be tailored to the needs and context of Singapore, taking into account factors such as affordability, sustainability, and the overall impact on the economy.

Even though significant empirical evidence is acknowledged in this study, we agree that it still has some limits. In general, many macroeconomic variables can affect income distribution in Singapore. Thus, some related economic variables, such as foreign direct investment, institutional quality, and the development of the national education system, should be further considered. Furthermore, this research does not delve into the structure of variables (lead-lag variable) and heteroskedasticity impacts of tourism development through quantile analysis. Therefore, future studies should utilize novel econometric techniques such as the time-varying parameter vector autoregressive model and the quantile-on-quantile approach to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the role of tourism development, economic growth, and human capital in income distribution across various contexts. These recommendations are essential for supporting policy-makers in making informed decisions.

Acknowledgments

We thank two anonymous referees and Editor-in-chief for their careful reading of our manuscript and their many insightful comments and suggestions that improved the quality of the original manuscript. Any remaining errors are our sole responsibility.

Funding Statement

The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability

• PLoS One. 2024; 19(4): e0301628.

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a. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01922-y

b. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02641-7

c. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/53788828/iib_dergisi-libre.pdf?1499430014=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DTHE_IMPACT_OF_ECONOMIC_GROWTH_AND_TRADE.pdf&Expires=1709721013&Signature=ChaGI8m6ftbIeaamRhnDkib~j995wF8slD9p~wK5PmKJdeIkwfRAbt2u0VQUuO1jYlG3yTiKzK9H5SOqLsVVcIADEpCan3xCyzO4M0imWMziM9gJtlOriAUU~AQICcVROv7VkunlNZ-3mH63dC6YgHl-EyOGAG3aOHdpxFahO6RQtCd87W4LKAOMgE0hOpqv0S7pK3WSd-wRK8x5hnb8~H4rKnWCLBXF63qnmXgxVnvueqrW4OOyKvMSw4gLpEd1LaHMRmK~1Xu6WFk1tyZpd36VrbDPNxhvor5IdtoPSSh17nWPQG~fX1JrW9-787dMS1JFgcXvNdKEBmTRtrZbMA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

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13 Mar 2024

Dear Editor-in-chief and Reviewers

The authors thank Prof. Abdullah Mohammad Ghazi Al khatib - the Academic Editor of Plos One journal, and the two esteemed reviewers for their valuable comments. We regret some weakness of the original manuscript. In this revision, The authors have tried to address every comment and suggestion. All modified parts are indicated in green in the new version of the manuscript. The authors sincerely hope that the revised manuscript meets the expectations of the Editors and Reviewers.

Submitted filename: Response to Editor-in-Chief & Reviewers.docx

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United Airlines has no weight or breed restrictions for cats and dogs as long as they are in an approved hard or soft-sided carrier, measuring 17.5 inches long by 9 inches tall and 12 inches wide for a hard carrier, or 18 inches long by 11 inches tall and 11 inches wide for a soft carrier.

United charges $125 each way for travel with pets. There is no fee for service animals on United flights, but some forms are required before the flight.

The carrier must fit under a seat, and where a passenger is allowed to sit can vary according to the type of aircraft. For example, people traveling with pets cannot sit in emergency rows. If you’re traveling with two pets (the maximum allotted), you are required to book two seats.

Delta Air Lines

Small dogs and cats can travel on Delta Air Lines flights as long as they can fit inside a carrier stored below the seat. The size of the carrier depends on the aircraft, but in general the airline recommends a soft-sided carrier no larger than 18 inches long by 11 inches tall and 11 inches wide.

Your pet must be at least 8 weeks old and small enough to have some room to move around in the carrier, which must have ventilation openings on three sides.

Delta charges $95 for pets traveling as carry-on companions, and the passenger can bring only one personal item along with the pet. Certain seats cannot be booked for travel with an animal, such as those in an emergency exit row.

American Airlines

American Airlines allows cats and dogs to travel in a carry-on container, which must remain under the seat in front of the pet owner throughout the flight. The airline recommends a soft-sided carrier that measures 18 inches long by 11 inches tall and 11 inches wide.

The fee for a carry-on pet on a domestic American Airlines flight is $150.

Flights are limited to seven carry-on pets, not including service animals, and American Eagle flights are limited to five carry-on pets, with one in first class. There is no charge for service animals flying on American flight, but the airline requires forms to be filled out in advance.

The airline said in a statement that it had recently changed its cabin pet policy to allow customers with a pet to also bring either a personal item or carry-on bag stowed in the overhead bin (but not both).

“We made the change to provide a more convenient and comfortable experience to customers whose pets fly American,” the airline said.

Spirit, JetBlue, Frontier and Alaska

Spirit allows dogs and cats on its flights in a carrier no larger than 18 inches long by 14 inches wide and 9 inches tall for a fee of $125. The weight of the pet and the carrier cannot exceed 40 pounds, according to the airline .

Small dogs and cats can fly on JetBlue for fee of $125 each way , in an approved carrier. Up to six pets are allowed on JetBlue flights.

Frontier allows pets on board for a $99 fee each way, as long the pet fits in a carrier. Passengers can have only a personal item or carry-on in addition to their pet carrier.

Pets can travel in a carrier on Alaska Airlines flights for a fee of $100 each way. A passenger can travel with a pet carrier and a personal item, or a carrier and a carry-on bag.

Private or charter flights

Those who take their pets on private or charter flights, which can cost many thousands of dollars, have much more leeway. Dogs that weigh less than 150 pounds can sit on seats.

BarkAir, a charter operator tailored specifically for those flying with dogs, charges about $6,000 for a dog and its owner to travel, with flights between New York and Los Angeles and New York and London. Carriers are not required, and dogs can sit on laps, seats or beds.

Jesus Jiménez covers breaking news, online trends and other subjects. He is based in New York City. More about Jesus Jiménez

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