fastest travel speed in space

NASA engine capable of travelling at nearly the speed of light detailed in new report

As more countries join the race to explore space, a NASA scientist has revealed a new propulsion method that could give his agency the edge.

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A NASA scientist has cooked up plans for a bonkers new rocket engine that can reach close to the speed of light — without using any fuel.

Travelling at such speeds, the theoretical machine could carry astronauts to Mars in less than 13 minutes, or to the Moon in just over a second.

However, the real purpose of the so-called “helical engine” would be to travel to distant stars far quicker than any existing tech, according to NASA engineer Dr David Burns.

Dr Burns, from NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Centre in Alabama, unveiled the idea in a head-spinning paper posted to NASA’s website.

“This in-space engine could be used for long-term satellite station-keeping without refuelling,” Dr Burns writes in his paper .

“It could also propel spacecraft across interstellar distances, reaching close to the speed of light.”

RELATED: Humans ‘not prepared’ for alien bombshell

Travelling at these speeds, light would struggle to keep up with you, warping your vision in bizarre ways.

Everything behind you would appear black, and time would appear to stop altogether, with clocks slowing down to a crawl and planets seemingly ceasing to spin.

Dr Burns’ mad idea is revolutionary because it does away with rocket fuel altogether.

Today’s rockets, like those built by NASA and SpaceX, would need tonnes of propellants like liquid hydrogen to carry people to Mars and beyond.

The problem is, the more fuel you stick on the craft, the heavier it is. Modern propellant tanks are far too bulky to take on interstellar flights.

The helical engine gets around this using hi-tech particle accelerators like those found in Europe’s Large Hadron Collider.

Tiny particles are fired at high speed using electromagnets, recycled back around the engine, and fired again.

Using a loophole in the laws of physics, the engine could theoretically reach speeds of around 297 million metres per second, according to Dr Burns.

The contraption is just a concept for now, and it’s not clear if it would actually work.

“If someone says it doesn’t work, I’ll be the first to say, it was worth a shot,” Dr Burns told New Scientist .

“You have to be prepared to be embarrassed. It is very difficult to invent something that is new under the sun and actually works.”

In its simplest terms, the engine works by taking advantage of how mass changes at the speed of light.

In his paper, Dr Burns provides a concept to break this down that describes a ring inside a box, attached to each end by a spring.

When the ring is sprung in one direction, the box recoils in the other, as is described by Newton’s laws of motion: Every action must have an equal and opposite reaction.

“When the ring reaches the end of the box, it will bounce backwards, and the box’s recoil direction will switch too,” New Scientist explains.

However, if the box and the ring are travelling at the speed of light, things work a little differently.

At such speeds, according to Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, as the ring approaches the end of the box it will increase in mass.

This means it will hit harder when it reaches the end of the box, resulting in forward momentum.

The engine itself will achieve a similar feat using a particle accelerator and ion particles, but that’s the general gist.

RELATED: Space race as HQ falls behind schedule

“Chemical, nuclear and electric propulsion systems produce thrust by accelerating and expelling propellants,” Dr Burns writes in his paper.

“Deep space travel is often a trade-off between thrust and large propellant storage tanks that eventually limit performance.

“The objective of this paper is to introduce and examine a unique engine that uses a closed-cycle propellant.”

The design is capable of producing a thrust up to 99 per cent the speed of light without breaking Einstein’s theory of relativity, according to Dr Burns.

However, the plan does breach Newton’s law of motion — violating the laws of physics.

That’s not the only thing holding the helical engine back: Dr Burns reckoned it would have to be 198 metres long and 12 metres wide to work.

The gizmo would also only operate effectively in the frictionless environment of deep space.

It may sound like a harebrained scheme, but engine concepts that do away with rocket fuel have been proposed before.

They include the EM drive, a machine that could theoretically generate rocket thrust using rays of light. The idea was later proved impossible.

“I know that it risks being right up there with the EM drive and cold fusion,” Dr Burns told New Scientist .

This article originally appeared on The Sun and was reproduced with permission

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Stargazers are in for a major treat this month, as the rare ‘Devil Comet’ becomes visible in Australian skies for the first time in 70 years.

A severe geomagnetic storm is underway after an eruption of solar plasma and magnetic fields from the sun reached Earth.

A spectacularly failure has cost a private company millions, here’s how it happened.

New technology could enable humans to travel at 7 million MPH

At 1 percent the speed of light, it would take a little over a second to get from Los Angeles to New York.

Light is fast . In fact, it is the fastest thing that exists, and a law of the universe is that nothing can move faster than light. Light travels at 186,000 miles per second (300,000 kilometers per second) and can go from the Earth to the Moon in just over a second. Light can streak from Los Angeles to New York in less than the blink of an eye.

While 1 percent of anything doesn’t sound like much, with light, that’s still really fast — close to 7 million miles per hour! At 1 percent the speed of light, it would take a little over a second to get from Los Angeles to New York. This is more than 10,000 times faster than a commercial jet.

The Parker Solar Probe, seen here in an artist’s rendition, is the fastest object ever made by humans and used the gravity of the Sun to get going 0.05% the speed of light.

What is the fastest man-made object

Bullets can go 2,600 miles per hour (mph), more than three times the speed of sound. The fastest aircraft is NASA’s X3 jet plane , with a top speed of 7,000 mph. That sounds impressive, but it’s still only 0.001 percent the speed of light.

The fastest human-made objects are spacecraft. They use rockets to break free of the Earth’s gravity, which takes a speed of 25,000 mph. The spacecraft that is traveling the fastest is NASA’s Parker Solar Probe . After it launched from Earth in 2018, it skimmed the Sun’s scorching atmosphere and used the Sun’s gravity to reach 330,000 mph. That’s blindingly fast — yet only 0.05% of the speed of light.

Why even 1 percent of light speed is hard

What’s holding humanity back from reaching 1 percent of the speed of light? In a word, energy. Any object that’s moving has energy due to its motion. Physicists call this kinetic energy. To go faster, you need to increase kinetic energy. The problem is that it takes a lot of kinetic energy to increase speed. To make something go twice as fast takes four times the energy. Making something go three times as fast requires nine times the energy, and so on.

For example, to get a teenager who weighs 110 pounds to 1 percent of the speed of light would cost 200 trillion Joules (a measurement of energy). That’s roughly the same amount of energy that 2 million people in the U.S. use in a day.

Light sails like these seen in an illustration could get us to the stars.

How fast can we go?

It’s possible to get something to 1 percent the speed of light, but it would just take an enormous amount of energy. Could humans make something go even faster?

Yes! But engineers need to figure out new ways to make things move in space. All rockets, even the sleek new rockets used by SpaceX and Blue Origins, burn rocket fuel that isn’t very different from gasoline in a car. The problem is that burning fuel is very inefficient.

Other methods for pushing a spacecraft involve using electric or magnetic forces . Nuclear fusion , the process that powers the Sun, is also much more efficient than chemical fuel.

Scientists are researching many other ways to go fast — even warp drives , the faster-than-light travel popularized by Star Trek .

One promising way to get something moving very fast is to use a solar sail. These are large, thin sheets of plastic attached to a spacecraft and designed so that sunlight can push on them, like the wind in a normal sail. A few spacecraft have used solar sails to show that they work, and scientists think that a solar sail could propel spacecraft to 10 percent of the speed of light .

One day, when humanity is not limited to a tiny fraction of the speed of light, we might travel to the stars .

This article was originally published on The Conversation by Chris Impey. Read the original article here.

This article was originally published on November 22, 2021

• Space Science

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NASA's Parker Solar Probe has gone faster than any spacecraft ever

By Leah Crane

30 April 2021

An artist’s impression of the Parker Solar Probe

NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Steve Gribben

The fastest spacecraft ever built has nearly touched the sun. NASA’s Parker Solar Probe, which launched in 2018, has set two records at once: the closest spacecraft to the sun and the highest speed reached.

On 29 April, the probe made its closest pass yet to the sun, a little more than 10 million kilometres from its surface. During the time of closest approach, it was travelling at about 150 kilometres per second relative to the sun, the fastest any spacecraft has ever moved.

At this rate, it would take about 4.5 minutes to cover the entire circumference of Earth, or around 40 minutes to fly from Earth to the moon. It is about 0.05 per cent of the speed of light.

But the Parker Solar Probe isn’t done yet: the fly-by of the sun on 29 April was only the spacecraft’s eighth pass out of a planned 24 before the end of the mission in late 2025. On each pass, the probe first sails out past Venus to use the planet’s gravity to shape its orbit, pushing the spacecraft closer and closer to the sun.

Read more: NASA’s closest ever flight to the sun answers solar wind mystery

That proximity will help it swing by at increasing speeds, with a planned top speed of around 200 kilometres per second. At that pace, it will be almost three times faster than the previous record-holders, a pair of spacecraft called the Helios probes that studied the sun in the 1970s.

At its closest, the Parker Solar Probe will be just less than 7 million kilometres from the sun, more than 6 times closer to it than the Helios probes were, which held the record until Parker broke it in 2018.

While the spacecraft is close to the sun, its goals lie beneath the surface – the probe is designed to measure the magnetic fields in the region and trace the flow of energy within the sun. These measurements should help researchers understand how the sun blasts out the energetic particles that make up the solar wind, as well as the mystery of why the outermost layer of the sun is hotter than the inner layers.

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Going 1 Million Miles per Hour With Advanced Propulsion

Advanced propulsion breakthroughs are near. Spacecraft have been stuck at slow chemical rocket speeds for years and weak ion drive for decades. However, speeds over one million miles per hour before 2050 are possible. There are surprising new innovations with technically feasible projects.

NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) is funding two high potential concepts. New ion drives could have ten times better in terms of ISP and power levels ten thousand times higher. Antimatter propulsion and multi-megawatt ion drives are being developed.

This is written by Brian Wang of Nextbigfuture. Brian will be writing regular guest articles for Universe Today.

Propulsion and Speed in Space

What are the fastest spacecraft we have made?

The Voyager 1 spacecraft is moving at 38,000 mph (61,000 km/h). This was mostly achieved with a chemical rocket but also with a gravitational slingshot. The Juno, Helios I and Helios II spacecraft reached speeds in the 150,000 mph range using gravitational boosts. The recently launched Parker Solar Probe will reach 430,000 mph using the Sun’s gravity.

Gravitational acceleration can increase the speed of a spacecraft by many times. However, using the gravity of Jupiter and the Sun to get more speed waste a lot of time. The spacecraft take many months to go around the Sun and get speed before starting the real mission.

Best Chemical Rocket Speeds and Times

Refueling a large rocket like the SpaceX BFR can produce surprisingly good trip times to Mars.

Multiple orbital refuelings of the SpaceX BFR at a high orbit can maximize the speed of the BFR. A fully fueled SpaceX BFR would shorten the one-way trip to Mars to as little as 40 days. A parabolic orbit would be used instead of a Hohmann transfer.

Space Missions to Mars have been small spacecraft. The entire mission was launched from Earth. This means most of the fuel was used to get the system off of the Earth. The final stage is tiny and slow.

By refueling the SpaceX BFR in orbit, it is possible for a large chemically powered space mission with up to 10.0 kilometer per second delta-V. This is about 100 hundred times larger than prior Earth to Mars missions and three times faster.

Table of Drive Speeds

Propellant speeds are compared below. Advanced propulsion can go twenty to fifty times faster than chemical rockets and existing ion drives.

Advanced Propulsion : Multi-megawatt Lithium-ion Drives

JPL (Jet Propulsion Lab) will be testing a 50000 ISP lithium ion thruster within 4 months. This is part of a NASA NIAC phase 2 study to use lasers to beam 10 megawatts of power to new ion drives.

Many people are not aware of the recent progress with more powerful lasers. The US military is developing arrays of lasers that can produce 100 kilowatts within the next 2 years. The military should have megawatt laser arrays by around 2025.

Laser beam powered lithium-ion drives ten times faster than any previous ion drive. A spacecraft with this system would take less than a year to get to Pluto.

JPL is building and proving out the various components of this system. The sail and the ion drives are coming together. The hard part is the phased array lasers.

They are boosting the testing voltage up to 6000 volts so the lithium ion drives can be directly driven. Direct drive eliminates the need for a lot of heavy electronics which would kill the performance.

The power density will be one hundred times more than sun based solar power. They will reduce system size by using a laser wavelength of 300 nanometers instead of 1063 nanometers.

The multi-megawatt lithium-ion drive has technical challenges. However, a well-funded project can be successful before 2040.

Advanced Propulsion : Positron Dynamics – Positron Catalyzed Fusion Drive

Positron Dynamics has given updates to NIAC and Brian Wang has interviewed Positron Dynamics CEO Ryan Weed.

The problems to create and store antimatter are avoided. Krypton isotopes are used to generate hot positrons. More isotope can made using neutron producing reactors. This avoids the problem of creating antimatter.

Antimatter is not stored, which is great because we do not know how to store antimatter. Positrons are created and then directed into a process which produces fusion propulsion. This also solves the problem of using antimatter to generate propulsion.

Positron Dynamics slow the positrons that are generated. They have a small moderator device. It uses several layers of silicon carbide film to extract individual positrons. An electric field causes the particles to drift to the surface of each layer where they can cool. The positrons catalyze fusion reactions in a dense block of deuterium. This produces propulsion.

By: Brian Wang of Nextbigfuture.

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2 Replies to “Going 1 Million Miles per Hour With Advanced Propulsion”

Did anyone even proofread this?

Mr Wang’s website is always full of dot point summaries with little explanation or justification. I can’t comment on the feasibility of his proposals for advanced physics, but I know we aren’t anywhere near realising most of this.

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March 30, 2024

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A cosmic 'speed camera' just revealed the staggering speed of neutron star jets in a world first

by James Miller-Jones, The Conversation

How fast can a neutron star drive powerful jets into space? The answer, it turns out, is about one-third the speed of light, as our team has just revealed in a new study published in Nature .

Energetic cosmic beams known as jets are seen throughout our universe. They are launched when material—mainly dust and gas—falls in towards any dense central object, such as a neutron star (an extremely dense remnant of a once-massive star) or a black hole .

The jets carry away some of the gravitational energy released by the infalling gas, recycling it back into the surroundings on far larger scales.

The most powerful jets in the universe come from the biggest black holes at the centers of galaxies. The energy output of these jets can affect the evolution of an entire galaxy, or even a galaxy cluster. This makes jets a critical, yet intriguing, component of our universe.

Although jets are common, we still don't fully understand how they are launched. Measuring the jets from a neutron star has now given us valuable information.

Jets from stellar corpses

Jets from black holes tend to be bright, and have been well studied. However, the jets from neutron stars are typically much fainter, and much less is known about them.

This presents a problem, since we can learn a lot by comparing the jets launched by different celestial objects. Neutron stars are extremely dense stellar corpses—cosmic cinders the size of a city, yet containing the mass of a star. We can think of them as enormous atomic nuclei, each about 20 kilometers across.

In contrast to black holes, neutron stars have both a solid surface and a magnetic field , and gas falling onto them releases less gravitational energy . All of these properties will have an effect on how their jets are launched, making studies of neutron star jets particularly valuable.

One key clue to how jets are launched comes from their speeds. If we can determine how jet speeds vary with the mass or spin of the neutron star, that would provide a powerful test of theoretical predictions. But it is extremely challenging to measure jet speeds accurately enough for such a test.

A cosmic speed camera

When we measure speeds on Earth, we time an object between two points. This could be a 100-meter sprinter running down the track, or a point-to-point speed camera tracking a car.

Our team, led by Thomas Russell from the Italian National Institute of Astrophysics in Palermo, conducted a new experiment to do this for neutron star jets.

What has made this measurement so difficult in the past is that jets are steady flows. This means there is no single starting point for our timer. But we were able to identify a short-lived signal at X-ray wavelengths that we could use as our "starting gun."

Being so dense, neutron stars can "steal" matter from a nearby orbiting companion star. While some of that gas is launched outwards as jets, most of it ends up falling onto the neutron star. As the material piles up, it gets hotter and denser.

When enough material has built up, it triggers a thermonuclear explosion. A runaway nuclear fusion reaction occurs and rapidly spreads to engulf the entire star. The fusion lasts for a few seconds to minutes, causing a short-lived burst of X-rays .

One step closer to solving a mystery

We thought this thermonuclear explosion would disrupt the neutron star's jets. So, we used CSIRO's Australia Telescope Compact Array to stare at the jets for three days at radio wavelengths to try and catch the disruption. At the same time, we used the European Space Agency's Integral telescope to look at the X-rays from the system.

To our surprise, we found the jets got brighter after every pulse of X-rays. Instead of disrupting the jets, the thermonuclear explosions seemed to power them up. And this pattern was repeated ten times in one neutron star system, and then again in a second system.

We can explain this surprising result if the X-ray pulse causes gas swirling around the neutron star to fall inwards more quickly. This, in turn, provides more energy and material to divert into the jets.

Most importantly, however, we can use the X-ray burst to indicate the launch time of the jets. We timed how long they took to move outwards to where they became visible at two different radio wavelengths. These start and finish points provided us with our cosmic speed camera.

Interestingly, the jet speed we measured was close to the "escape speed" from a neutron star. On Earth, this escape speed is 11.2 kilometers per second —what rockets need to achieve to break free of Earth's gravity. For a neutron star, that value is around half the speed of light .

Our work has introduced a new technique for measuring neutron star jet speeds. Our next steps will be to see how the jet speed changes for neutron stars with different masses and rotation rates. That will allow us to directly test theoretical models , taking us one step closer to figuring out how such powerful cosmic jets are launched.

Journal information: Nature

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How Fast Can We Travel in Space With Current Technology?

So, are you a fan of sci-fi movies or TV shows? Are you interested in complex physics and love the idea of traveling to distant planets and galaxies? Does the prospect of interstellar travel make you excited? Many of us dream of a future in which humans can travel anywhere in the universe. Thankfully, that future is only getting closer.

Recently, space travel technology has seen a boom in funding and innovation. Elon Musk and his team at SpaceX keep breaking record after record. Other billionaires, including Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson, are also trying to build better, cheaper, and faster rockets. This competition has come to be known as the “Billionaire Space Race.”  

What’s the Fastest Thing We’ve Sent Into Space?

What you’re probably wondering is how fast we’ve been able to travel in space so far. Answering this question is actually more complicated than you might think. The correct answer depends on whether you’re referring to manned or unmanned rockets and spacecraft. Generally, uncrewed spaceships can travel at a much greater speed than crewed ones. That’s because they are lighter and are not intended to take safety measures into account.

The Fastest Spacecraft

On the 12th of August 2018, NASA launched the Parker Solar Probe into space aboard the United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy rocket. The probe will circle Venus 7 times, using the planet’s gravitational field to slingshot itself towards the Sun. By 2024, it’s projected to reach a maximum speed of 430,000 mph (692,000 km/h).

As of the 27th of September 2020, the Parker Solar Probe has already accelerated to a speed of 289,927 mph (466,592 km/h) relative to the Sun, officially becoming the fastest spacecraft to date. Sometime in 2025, it will also become the first human-made object to “touch” the Sun, getting only 6.9 million km or 4.3 million miles away from the star’s center.

The Fastest Crewed Mission

Surprisingly, the fastest manned mission record still belongs to Apollo 10, which took place back in May 1969. During its return from the Moon, the crew’s vehicle reached a speed of 24,791 mph (39,897 km/h). This mission’s success enabled Apollo 11 to land on the Moon just a few months later.

SpaceX and the Journey to Mars

On the 4th of March 2021, SpaceX’s Starship completed its third high-altitude flight test, following two previous tests during which the prototypes crashed and exploded at landing. Although it’s currently far from being able to complete a journey into outer space, the Starship will supposedly be able to reach Mars someday.

The Starship’s final model will require six rocket engines and a separate rocket booster called the Super Heavy to reach orbit. These will enable it to develop a speed of over 17,000 mph (approximately 27,000 km/h). 

SpaceX’s CEO Elon Musk has stated that he intends to get humans on Mars by 2026. The audacious journey will take somewhere between six and eight months to complete. The Starship will need to reach around 25,000 mph (approximately 40,000 km/h) and escape Earth’s gravitational pull to reach the planet. If that happens, the first manned mission to Mars will likely break Apollo 10’s long-standing record.

One More Thing

Although we don’t know when humans will set foot on Mars, one thing is certain: we live in exciting times. However, having to wait for the next breakthrough in space travel is boring, so why not have some fun while you’re doing it? Check out the best Playtech casinos and try your luck at some of the most popular online games. You might win a special prize that will take you to the Moon!

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What is the speed of light? Here’s the history, discovery of the cosmic speed limit

On one hand, the speed of light is just a number: 299,792,458 meters per second. And on the other, it’s one of the most important constants that appears in nature and defines the relationship of causality itself.

As far as we can measure, it is a constant. It is the same speed for every observer in the entire universe. This constancy was first established in the late 1800’s with the experiments of Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at Case Western Reserve University . They attempted to measure changes in the speed of light as the Earth orbited around the Sun. They found no such variation, and no experiment ever since then has either.

Observations of the cosmic microwave background, the light released when the universe was 380,000 years old, show that the speed of light hasn’t measurably changed in over 13.8 billion years.

In fact, we now define the speed of light to be a constant, with a precise speed of 299,792,458 meters per second. While it remains a remote possibility in deeply theoretical physics that light may not be a constant, for all known purposes it is a constant, so it’s better to just define it and move on with life.

How was the speed of light first measured?

In 1676 the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Romer made the first quantitative measurement of how fast light travels. He carefully observed the orbit of Io, the innermost moon of Jupiter. As the Earth circles the Sun in its own orbit, sometimes it approaches Jupiter and sometimes it recedes away from it. When the Earth is approaching Jupiter, the path that light has to travel from Io is shorter than when the Earth is receding away from Jupiter. By carefully measuring the changes to Io’s orbital period, Romer calculated a speed of light of around 220,000 kilometers per second.

Observations continued to improve until by the 19 th century astronomers and physicists had developed the sophistication to get very close to the modern value. In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell made a remarkable discovery. He was investigating the properties of electricity and magnetism, which for decades had remained mysterious in unconnected laboratory experiments around the world. Maxwell found that electricity and magnetism were really two sides of the same coin, both manifestations of a single electromagnetic force.

As Maxwell explored the consequences of his new theory, he found that changing magnetic fields can lead to changing electric fields, which then lead to a new round of changing magnetic fields. The fields leapfrog over each other and can even travel through empty space. When Maxwell went to calculate the speed of these electromagnetic waves, he was surprised to see the speed of light pop out – the first theoretical calculation of this important number.

What is the most precise measurement of the speed of light?

Because it is defined to be a constant, there’s no need to measure it further. The number we’ve defined is it, with no uncertainty, no error bars. It’s done. But the speed of light is just that – a speed. The number we choose to represent it depends on the units we use: kilometers versus miles, seconds versus hours, and so on. In fact, physicists commonly just set the speed of light to be 1 to make their calculations easier. So instead of trying to measure the speed light travels, physicists turn to more precisely measuring other units, like the length of the meter or the duration of the second. In other words, the defined value of the speed of light is used to establish the length of other units like the meter.

How does light slow down?

Yes, the speed of light is always a constant. But it slows down whenever it travels through a medium like air or water. How does this work? There are a few different ways to present an answer to this question, depending on whether you prefer a particle-like picture or a wave-like picture.

In a particle-like picture, light is made of tiny little bullets called photons. All those photons always travel at the speed of light, but as light passes through a medium those photons get all tangled up, bouncing around among all the molecules of the medium. This slows down the overall propagation of light, because it takes more time for the group of photons to make it through.

In a wave-like picture, light is made of electromagnetic waves. When these waves pass through a medium, they get all the charged particles in motion, which in turn generate new electromagnetic waves of their own. These interfere with the original light, forcing it to slow down as it passes through.

Either way, light always travels at the same speed, but matter can interfere with its travel, making it slow down.

Why is the speed of light important?

The speed of light is important because it’s about way more than, well, the speed of light. In the early 1900’s Einstein realized just how special this speed is. The old physics, dominated by the work of Isaac Newton, said that the universe had a fixed reference frame from which we could measure all motion. This is why Michelson and Morley went looking for changes in the speed, because it should change depending on our point of view. But their experiments showed that the speed was always constant, so what gives?

Einstein decided to take this experiment at face value. He assumed that the speed of light is a true, fundamental constant. No matter where you are, no matter how fast you’re moving, you’ll always see the same speed.

This is wild to think about. If you’re traveling at 99% the speed of light and turn on a flashlight, the beam will race ahead of you at…exactly the speed of light, no more, no less. If you’re coming from the opposite direction, you’ll still also measure the exact same speed.

This constancy forms the basis of Einstein’s special theory of relativity, which tells us that while all motion is relative – different observers won’t always agree on the length of measurements or the duration of events – some things are truly universal, like the speed of light.

Can you go faster than light speed?

Nope. Nothing can. Any particle with zero mass must travel at light speed. But anything with mass (which is most of the universe) cannot. The problem is relativity. The faster you go, the more energy you have. But we know from Einstein’s relativity that energy and mass are the same thing. So the more energy you have, the more mass you have, which makes it harder for you to go even faster. You can get as close as you want to the speed of light, but to actually crack that barrier takes an infinite amount of energy. So don’t even try.

How is the speed at which light travels related to causality?

If you think you can find a cheat to get around the limitations of light speed, then I need to tell you about its role in special relativity. You see, it’s not just about light. It just so happens that light travels at this special speed, and it was the first thing we discovered to travel at this speed. So it could have had another name. Indeed, a better name for this speed might be “the speed of time.”

Related: Is time travel possible? An astrophysicist explains

We live in a universe of causes and effects. All effects are preceded by a cause, and all causes lead to effects. The speed of light limits how quickly causes can lead to effects. Because it’s a maximum speed limit for any motion or interaction, in a given amount of time there’s a limit to what I can influence. If I want to tap you on the shoulder and you’re right next to me, I can do it right away. But if you’re on the other side of the planet, I have to travel there first. The motion of me traveling to you is limited by the speed of light, so that sets how quickly I can tap you on the shoulder – the speed light travels dictates how quickly a single cause can create an effect.

The ability to go faster than light would allow effects to happen before their causes. In essence, time travel into the past would be possible with faster-than-light travel. Since we view time as the unbroken chain of causes and effects going from the past to the future, breaking the speed of light would break causality, which would seriously undermine our sense of the forward motion of time.

Why does light travel at this speed?

No clue. It appears to us as a fundamental constant of nature. We have no theory of physics that explains its existence or why it has the value that it does. We hope that a future understanding of nature will provide this explanation, but right now all investigations are purely theoretical. For now, we just have to take it as a given.

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NASA Is About to Launch the Fastest Spacecraft in History. Target: The Sun!

Update for Aug. 11: NASA and the United Launch Alliance have postponed the Parker Solar Probe launch by at least 24 hours, to Aug. 12, due to an issue with the probe's Delta IV Heavy rocket.  Read our full story here.

Early tomorrow morning (Aug. 11), weather permitting, NASA will launch its newest spacecraft, called the Parker Solar Probe , aboard a huge United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy rocket — and by December 2024, it will become the fastest spacecraft ever.

That's when the probe will reach its closest point to the sun, coming within 3.83 million miles (6 million kilometers) of our star. At that point, the spacecraft will be speeding along at a whopping 430,000 mph (692,000 km/h). On Earth, that would be the equivalent of traveling from Washington, D.C., to Tokyo in less than a minute — or from D.C. to Philadelphia in less than a second.

But the team behind the spacecraft is surprisingly blasé about the record-breaking feat. "Designing something to go fast in space is pretty much the same as you would design it to go slow in space; space has nothing to really impede its progress," Parker Solar Probe project manager Andrew Driesman, of the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, said during a NASA news conference yesterday (Aug. 9). "The spacecraft doesn't know it's going fast." [ The Greatest Missions to the Sun ]

Nevertheless, it won't be entirely smooth sailing, since the probe won't be the only thing moving incredibly quickly. The Parker Solar Probe will also be surrounded by what scientists call a hypervelocity dust environment — a slew of tiny, fast-moving particles, some of which will inevitably bang into the spacecraft. The probe carries Kevlar blankets to protect itself from those impacts.

During its closest approach to the sun, the Parker Solar Probe will leave other speedy spacecraft eating metaphorical dust. For comparison, the Voyager 1 spacecraft, launched back in 1977, is currently traveling at about 38,000 mph (61,000 km/h), according to NASA — less than 10 percent of the Parker Solar Probe's peak speed.

When it slipped into orbit around Jupiter in July 2016, NASA's Juno probe briefly clocked in at 165,000 mph (266,000 km/h), making it the fastest spacecraft to date. That was achievable thanks, in part, to the gas giant's own gravity — which some sticklers claim is cheating .

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However, in terms of so-called heliocentric velocity only — the speed with regard to the sun, without the influence of planets — two other spacecraft currently hold the record: Helios I and II , two 1970s missions that slipped closer to the sun than Mercury is to our star, reaching speeds of about 150,000 mph (241,000 km/h).

But because things orbit faster the closer in, sailing within 4 million miles (6.4 million kilometers) of the visible surface of the sun means that the Parker Solar Probe will almost triple that speed. Better wave goodbye to it while you can.

Editor's note:  NASA's Parker Solar Probe will launch Saturday, Aug. 11, at 3:33 a.m. EDT (0733 GMT).  You can watch the launch live here on Space.com   beginning at 3 a.m. EDT (0700 GMT), courtesy of NASA TV. Visit Space.com Saturday for complete coverage of NASA's Parker Solar Probe launch.

Email Meghan Bartels at [email protected] or follow her @meghanbartels . Follow us   @Spacedotcom ,   Facebook  and   Google+ . Original article on   Space.com .

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Meghan is a senior writer at Space.com and has more than five years' experience as a science journalist based in New York City. She joined Space.com in July 2018, with previous writing published in outlets including Newsweek and Audubon. Meghan earned an MA in science journalism from New York University and a BA in classics from Georgetown University, and in her free time she enjoys reading and visiting museums. Follow her on Twitter at @meghanbartels.

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How Fast Do Spacecraft Travel in The Expanse ?

Maybe you thought my previous post on the crushing g-force of the Epstein drive from The Expanse would be the end of that. Wrong. This is such great clip, I have to do more.

In case you missed it, let me tell you what's going on. This guy has a spaceship near Mars (maybe in orbit) and he is playing around with some modifications to his fusion drive, giving the spaceship super thrust while using very little fuel. The clip doesn't end well for the guy, but it's the start of a new drive—the Epstein drive. This more powerful spaceship propulsion allows ships to travel around the solar system and gives us the whole plot of The Expanse .

So, what kind of questions can be answered from this clip? Note that I am just going by evidence from the video. I'm not going to use stuff from the book ( The Expanse by James S.A. Corey) the show is based on. Here are some things to consider:

• How fast does the spaceship end up going?
• What is the maximum acceleration?
• How long would the fuel last?
• How far does it travel?

Let's just jump right into this. The scene includes a shot of the spaceship control panel. This display shows the time, speed, acceleration, and percent fuel remaining. The acceleration is measured in "g's" where 1 g = 9.8 m/s 2 . For the speed, it's measured in "MPS" which I am going to assume means meters per second (but I can check this).

During that first intial thrust, I can get speed and acceleration as a function of time (by looking at each frame). Here is a plot of speed vs. time ( and here is the data in plot.ly ).

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Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. So, for a plot of velocity vs time (just the velocity in one direction) the slope of the line will be the acceleration. From this graph, we can see two things. First, the speed increases at a linear rate as you would expect from a constant acceleration. Yes, the acceleration does indeed change in the first shot—but not by much (just 3.12 to 3.18). Second, the slope of the line gives an acceleration of 83.517 m/s 2 (assuming the "m" in the speed is meters). Just for comparison, an acceleration of 3.15 g's would be 30.87 m/s 2 .

OK, so we have a problem (yes, I know this is a science fiction show and not meant to be analyzed). Is the acceleration displayed incorrectly? Is the speed incorrect? Maybe the units for speed aren't meters per second? In order to proceed, I want to keep the acceleration at 3.15 g's—that means I'm going to have to fix the speed. The simplest way is to call the "M" in MPS something other than meters. Let me start by finding the conversion between meters and M (whatever that stands for). I can set the two accelerations equal to each other and solve for M.

I will call M the Martian-meter. It's shorter than an Earth-meter. Oh wait! What if the acceleration is not 3.15 Earth-g's but 3.15 Martian g's? The gravitational field on the surface of Mars is 3.71 N/kg (3.71 m/s 2 ) which would mean that 3.15 g's would be an acceleration of 11.7 m/s 2 . That's not good. That makes the acceleration in the clip in greater disagreement with the change in velocity. OK, I'm going with the Martian-meter idea (and I'm sticking to that).

The next time the scene shows the control panel is at a "run time" of 2 minutes and 12 seconds. The acceleration is listed at 4.28 g's. If I record the rate the speed changes again, it's very linear with an acceleration of 617.07 M/s 2 (notice that I am using Martian-meters) or 228.3 m/s 2 (Earth-meters). Converting the acceleration on the panel, I get 4.28 g's equal to 41.94 m/s 2 . OK, here is a news flash. I don't think the numbers really mean anything except that they are increasing at a linear rate.

Now for a comment. As someone who consults shows regarding science content, I suspect I know how this happened. Some science person calculated the speed so that it agrees with the 4.28 g acceleration. Next the special effects people made a program that displays the calculated speed on the readout in the scene. Finally, a producer or director looked at the rough cut and said "Hey, that doesn't look very fast. Can we make the speed change even more?" Boom, the display is different. And really, I'm OK with this—they are trying to tell a story and emphasize the huge acceleration. Who would really check that stuff anyway? Oh, that's right—me.

But wait! It gets even worse. If you measure the acceleration based on the changing speed, it gets high—very high. At the end of the clip, the spacecraft is traveling around 25 million meters per second and has an acceleration of about 46,119 m/s 2 . That's the equivalent of 4,700 g's. Boom.

Of course, it's all for a visual effect. If you want to show the spacecraft at crazy high speeds, a normal acceleration wouldn't look very impressive with just the last few digits changing. It would give the sense that it's not really accelerating (even though it is).

This is what you want. You want to know how fast this ship ends up going after it runs out of fuel. OK, I've got you covered. However, I don't know everything so I'm going to have to guess at some stuff. Here are my estimations.

• The spaceship starts with a speed of 5,500 m/s (yes, I'm assuming the mps means meters per second).
• There is a constant acceleration of 10 g's (98 m/s 2 ). This wouldn't quite be true if the mass of the spaceship significantly decreased as it used fuel—but it's still a fine place to start.
• There are no other significant gravitational objects around to influence its motion.
• The burn-rate for the fuel is constant. This means that it went from 89.9 percent to 89.1 percent in four hours.

Let's get started. The first thing to determine is the total burn time. If it uses up 0.8 percent in four hours, it would take about 450 hours to run out of fuel (that's almost 19 days). Next I can use the acceleration and time to find the final velocity (based on the definition of acceleration).

Using my values (need to put in the time in seconds), I get a velocity that's about half the speed of light (3 x 10 8 m/s)—so, this method won't work. Instead, I would need to use the relativistic definition of momentum:

Right—you don't want to do that since the math gets a bit tricker (you also need to use the momentum principle). Let's just say the final speed is super fast. Super, super fast. I will leave the actual calculation as a homework question.

Let me add one more thing for you to consider. How would you measure the speed in a spacecraft anyway? If you are thinking about the speed measurement for a car or airplane, it seems pretty straightforward. A car just measures the rotation rate of the tires and then uses that to calculate the speed. An airplane can measure the change in pressure due to the air moving past the wing to get the speed. But what about in space? There is nothing moving past the spacecraft to use for a speed measurement. Instead, you would have to calculate the speed based on the acceleration. Yes, that's what you would do.

• Use the momentum principle along with relativistic momentum to calculate the final velocity of the spacecraft.
• What is the kinetic energy of the spacecraft at the end of the rocket burn? If you assume all this energy came from the fusion process, how much fuel (mass) did it use? Hint: use the E = mc^2 to calculate the mass.
• Make a rough approximation of the mass of the spacecraft and the rocket equation to estimate the total mass of fuel in the rocket along with the exhaust speed.
• How far did the spacecraft travel during this burn? You can use non-relativistic kinematics if you like.
• The starting speed of the spacecraft is listed at 5500 m/s. Assuming it is in orbit around Mars, how high above the surface would it be?
• What if the spacecraft has a more reasonable acceleration—like around 1 g? How fast would it be traveling at the end of the burn?
• Suppose you want to measure the speed of the spacecraft based on the change in angular size of Mars as you move away. In the first hour, what would be the change in angular size of Mars?
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How fast a rocket can humans safely travel in?

Part of the show Eggs, eyes and quantum - November QnA

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"How fast a rocket can humans safely travel in?" Space science journalist Richard Hollingham answered this question for us...

Richard Hollingham - Okay. That's the wrong question! I'll come on to why it's the wrong question a second. We're actually travelling very fast right now; so I had to write these down, because I had to work some of these out as well so they might not be wholly accurate. So the Earth rotates at 600 miles an hour. So we're currently on the earth going 600 miles an hour, because we're on the earth we're also going 600 miles an hour. The Earth is speeding around the sun at 70,000 miles per hour. So we are also speeding around the sun at 70,000 miles an hour. The sun is speeding through the galaxy at 450,000 miles an hour, which means we're also spinning at 450,000 miles an hour. So, actually, we can go very very fast! The proper question is what acceleration can a human stand?

That's when you come into g-forces, and the idea of the amount times gravity that you can you can withstand. So, typically, a rocket, something like the Soyuz rocket, which is what astronauts use to get to the International Space Station, doesn't actually accelerate that much it's about 3 or 4g - if that - maximum going up to the space station.  Coming back, it's more unpleasant: it's kind of nearer 5g, but not for a long period of time, so that's fine. We know from experiments done in the 1950s by  Colonel John Stapp - a military doctor, who did experiments on himself, as all good doctors should do, he attached himself to a rocket-powered sled. And sped along this track and then braked very sharply to see what g-forces pilots could endure. The most he went up to was - and bursting the blood vessels in his eyes in the process but actually suffering no serious injury other than that - was 20g.

Chris Smith - Did he decelerate with his head towards the direction of travel, or away? Because this makes a difference because it makes a difference whether the blood goes away from your brain and you get 'blackout', or towards your brain and you get so-called 'red-out'?

Richard Hollingham - Interesting. He was on a chair on a sled. I guess, the acceleration would be going through his chest - through his body - the same way as astronauts. It's the reason they lie down on couches so that the acceleration - so that the forces - are going through your body rather than straight down through your head, which is something you want to avoid. So yes, you get this idea of blackouts and astronauts also wear to avoid that - and pilots do too - they have a far greater g-forces so they wear pressure suits and they will push the blood towards the head so you don't blackout. You don't want to be unconscious when you are flying a jet fighter!

Chris Smith - So returning to the question, which was what's the best sort of rocket to go in terms of speed, actually, that doesn't matter: it's the acceleration that matters and the acceleration is what determines the g you're going to feel. So what would be a comfortable g for a human to feel? I mean, when I'm taking off on an aeoroplane, what sort of g-forces are they?

Richard Hollingham - Nothing!

Chris Smith - So that's what I want. So basically yeah. 

Richard Hollingham - Actually, the best spacecraft for comfort was absolutely the space shuttle. Not too bad on the way up, and coming down it sort of circled: it looped and looped, to lose energy as it came down to Earth, and as it did that it was quite a gradual deceleration; whereas the 'Soyuz' again g-forces going up not too bad, coming back is pretty horrendous. I've heard it described as like going over Niagara Falls in a barrel - but a barrel that's on fire!

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How Fast Can We Travel in Space with Current Technology? Pushing the Boundaries

Ever since the dawn of the Space Age with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 , humanity has been captivated by the prospect of exploring the cosmos. The subsequent years witnessed remarkable achievements, such as Yuri Gagarin becoming the first human in space in 1961 , the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969 , and the ongoing presence of humans on the International Space Station since 2000 . These milestones, along with the advancements in space probes, telescopes, and satellites, have not only expanded our understanding of the universe but also fueled our collective imagination.

Importance of Speed in Space Exploration

As we continue to reach farther into the cosmos, the speed at which we can travel in space becomes increasingly significant . The vast distances between celestial bodies make traditional methods of propulsion, like chemical rockets, insufficient for timely exploration. In order to visit neighboring star systems or even more remote regions of our galaxy, we must develop faster means of transportation that can overcome the limitations of time and distance.

• Higher speeds in space travel offer numerous advantages. For manned missions, faster travel times reduce the duration of exposure to harmful radiation and microgravity, thereby mitigating the negative effects on astronauts’ health.
• For unmanned missions, increased speeds enable us to study more celestial objects within a given timeframe, thereby accelerating our understanding of the universe.
• Furthermore, faster space travel can increase the likelihood of discovering potential habitable worlds and extraterrestrial life forms, ultimately broadening our understanding of life’s origins and the potential for future human settlements.

In this article, we will delve into the current state of space travel technology , examining the fastest propulsion methods available today and t he limitations that define our cosmic speed boundaries . Additionally, we will explore cutting-edge research and development in propulsion technology that may pave the way for rapid advancements in space exploration in the near future.

How Fast Can We Travel in Space with Current Technology

The speed of light: the ultimate limit.

The speed of light, denoted as “c,” is a fundamental constant of nature that plays a critical role in our understanding of the universe. It is approximately 299,792 kilometers per second (km/s) or about 186,282 miles per second (mi/s) in a vacuum. According to Albert Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, making it the ultimate speed limit for any object in the universe .

This cosmic speed limit has profound implications for space travel. At the speed of light, it would still take over four years to reach the nearest star to our solar system, Proxima Centauri, which is 4.24 light-years away . For perspective, it would take about 6,300 years to cover the same distance using the fastest spacecraft ever launched, the Parker Solar Probe, which reached speeds of up to 700,000 km/h (430,000 mph) during its mission.

Time Dilation and Its Effects on Space Travel

As an object approaches the speed of light, it experiences a phenomenon known as time dilation . Time dilation is a consequence of the Special Theory of Relativity, which states that time appears to slow down for an object in motion relative to an observer at rest . The faster the object moves, the more pronounced the time dilation effect becomes.

For space travel, this means that as a spacecraft’s speed increases, the flow of time onboard the spacecraft slows down compared to the flow of time for an observer on Earth. For example, if a spacecraft were to travel at a speed close to the speed of light, a journey that lasts a few years for the astronauts onboard might equate to several decades or even centuries for observers back on Earth.

Time dilation introduces unique challenges for interstellar missions, particularly manned ones. While astronauts traveling at relativistic speeds might age more slowly than their counterparts on Earth, they would return to a world that has aged significantly more than they have. This effect poses challenges not only for the psychological and emotional well-being of astronauts but also for the planning and execution of long-duration space missions.

Chemical Propulsion: The Traditional Method

Chemical propulsion has been the backbone of space travel since its inception . It relies on the combustion of chemical propellants to produce thrust, propelling a spacecraft forward. Chemical rockets, such as the Saturn V that carried the Apollo astronauts to the Moon and the Space Shuttle’s main engines, have demonstrated impressive capabilities in lifting heavy payloads and enabling human spaceflight.

However, chemical propulsion has significant limitations.

• First, the propellant mass required to generate thrust contributes to a large portion of a rocket’s total mass, making it less efficient for long-distance travel. The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation demonstrates this challenge , highlighting that the required fuel increases exponentially as the desired change in velocity (delta-v) increases. Consequently, a large amount of fuel is needed to achieve high speeds, which in turn increases the spacecraft’s mass and demands even more fuel.
• Second, chemical rockets have a relatively low specific impulse , a measure of propulsion system efficiency. The specific impulse of chemical rockets is limited by the energy content of the chemical propellants and the temperature constraints of the combustion process. This limitation translates to lower achievable speeds compared to other propulsion methods, such as electric or nuclear propulsion.

Achievable Speeds with Chemical Propulsion

The speeds achievable with chemical propulsion depend on the type of rocket, the propellant used, and the mission profile. Generally, chemical rockets can reach speeds of up to 40,000 km/h (25,000 mph) or more . For example, the New Horizons probe , which was launched in 2006 to study Pluto and the Kuiper Belt, achieved a speed of about 58,000 km/h (36,000 mph) using chemical propulsion .

Iconic Missions Using Chemical Rockets

Many iconic missions in space exploration have relied on chemical propulsion.

• The Apollo program , which landed astronauts on the Moon between 1969 and 1972 , used the Saturn V rocket, a chemical rocket that remains t he tallest, heaviest, and most powerful rocket ever flown .
• Another well-known example is the Space Shuttle , which operated from 1981 to 2011 , using a combination of solid rocket boosters and liquid-fueled main engines for its propulsion.

While chemical propulsion has been instrumental in many groundbreaking space missions, its limitations in efficiency and achievable speeds highlight the need for alternative propulsion methods to enable more ambitious space exploration endeavors.

Ion Propulsion: The Electric Alternative

Ion propulsion , also known as electric propulsion , offers a promising alternative to traditional chemical propulsion systems. Ion thrusters work by ionizing a neutral gas, typically xenon or argon, and then accelerating the charged particles (ions) through an electric field to produce thrust . Since ion thrusters do not rely on combustion, they can achieve much higher specific impulse compared to chemical rockets , making them more fuel-efficient and capable of achieving higher speeds over long durations.

Advantages and Limitations of Ion Propulsion

Ion propulsion offers several advantages over chemical propulsion:

• Higher specific impulse: Ion thrusters have a much higher specific impulse, meaning they can generate more thrust per unit of propellant mass. This results in significant fuel savings and allows spacecraft to carry more scientific instruments or cargo.
• Long operational lifetimes: Ion thrusters can operate continuously for years, enabling spacecraft to maintain thrust for extended periods and achieve higher speeds over time.
• Reduced mass: Due to their fuel efficiency, ion propulsion systems can substantially reduce the overall mass of a spacecraft, leading to cost savings during launch and increased mission flexibility.

However, ion propulsion also has some limitations:

• Low thrust: Ion thrusters produce relatively low levels of thrust compared to chemical rockets. This makes them unsuitable for time-sensitive missions or those requiring high acceleration, such as launching a spacecraft from Earth’s surface.
• Power requirements: Ion propulsion systems require a significant amount of electrical power, typically provided by solar panels or nuclear reactors. This can add complexity and weight to a spacecraft’s design.

Successful Missions Using Ion Propulsion

Ion propulsion has been successfully employed in several space missions, showcasing its potential for deep space exploration:

• Deep Space 1: Launched in 1998, NASA’s Deep Space 1 was the first mission to use ion propulsion as its primary propulsion system. The spacecraft tested several advanced technologies, including the NSTAR ion thruster, which propelled it to a successful flyby of asteroid 9969 Braille and comet Borrelly.
• Dawn: The Dawn mission, launched in 2007, used ion propulsion to visit and study two large objects in the asteroid belt, Vesta and Ceres. The spacecraft’s ion thrusters allowed it to enter and exit orbits around both celestial bodies, a feat that would have been impossible with conventional chemical propulsion due to the amount of fuel required.
• Hayabusa and Hayabusa2: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) employed ion propulsion for its Hayabusa missions, which aimed to collect and return samples from asteroids. Hayabusa, launched in 2003, successfully returned samples from asteroid 25143 Itokawa in 2010. Hayabusa2, launched in 2014, collected samples from asteroid 162173 Ryugu and returned them to Earth in 2020.

Solar Sails: Harnessing the Power of the Sun

Solar sails represent an innovative propulsion method that utilizes the power of sunlight to propel spacecraft. These sails are made of lightweight, highly reflective materials, such as Mylar or Kapton , that capture the momentum of photons emitted by the Sun. As photons strike the sail, they transfer their momentum to the spacecraft, generating a small but continuous force that propels it forward. Unlike chemical or ion propulsion, solar sails require no propellant, making them an attractive option for long-duration missions .

Achievable Speeds and Limitations of Solar Sail Technology

Solar sails can achieve significant speeds over time due to the continuous and propellant-free nature of their propulsion . Theoretically, solar sails could reach speeds of up to hundreds of thousands of kilometers per hour , depending on the sail’s size, mass, and distance from the Sun. However, the actual speeds achieved will depend on various factors, including the sail’s design, the spacecraft’s mass, and mission constraints.

Despite their potential, solar sails also have limitations:

• Diminishing thrust with distance: As a spacecraft travels farther from the Sun, the intensity of sunlight decreases, reducing the thrust generated by the solar sail. This makes solar sails less effective for missions to the outer solar system and beyond.
• Low initial thrust: Solar sails generate relatively low thrust, especially when compared to chemical rockets. This means they are not suitable for time-sensitive missions or those requiring rapid acceleration.
• Deployment and control challenges: Designing, deploying, and controlling large, lightweight solar sails present significant engineering challenges,as they need to be carefully unfolded in space and controlled to maintain the correct orientation relative to the Sun. Additionally, space debris and micrometeoroids pose a risk to the sail’s delicate structure, potentially compromising its performance.

Notable Solar Sail Missions

Several solar sail missions have been launched to demonstrate the viability and potential of this propulsion method:

IKAROS: Launched in 2010 by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun) was the first spacecraft to successfully demonstrate solar sail propulsion in interplanetary space. The spacecraft used a 14-meter (46 ft) diagonal square sail to propel itself during its mission to Venus and beyond.

LightSail: Developed by The Planetary Society, the LightSail project aimed to demonstrate controlled solar sail propulsion in Earth orbit. LightSail 1, launched in 2015, was a proof-of-concept mission that successfully deployed its solar sail but did not achieve controlled propulsion. LightSail 2, launched in 2019, successfully deployed its solar sail and demonstrated controlled solar sailing, adjusting its orbit using only the pressure of sunlight.

These missions highlight the potential of solar sail technology for propellant-free propulsion in space. With continued research and development, solar sails could play an increasingly important role in future space exploration, enabling missions to distant celestial bodies and even interstellar travel.

Nuclear Propulsion: The Untapped Potential

Nuclear propulsion offers a promising alternative to traditional propulsion methods for long-distance space travel . There are two primary concepts of nuclear propulsion: nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) and nuclear electric propulsion (NEP).

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP):

NTP systems use a nuclear reactor to heat a propellant, typically hydrogen, to high temperatures. The heated propellant is then expelled through a nozzle to generate thrust. NTP offers a higher specific impulse than chemical propulsion systems and can provide greater thrust than electric propulsion systems, making it an attractive option for crewed missions to Mars and beyond.

Nuclear Electric Propulsion (NEP):

NEP systems use a nuclear reactor to generate electricity, which is then used to power electric propulsion systems, such as ion or Hall-effect thrusters . NEP offers a higher specific impulse than NTP systems but typically generates lower thrust. This makes NEP well-suited for long-duration, uncrewed missions with lower acceleration requirements.

Speed Capabilities and Advantages of Nuclear Propulsion

Nuclear propulsion offers several advantages over traditional propulsion methods, including increased speed capabilities:

• Higher specific impulse: Both NTP and NEP systems have a higher specific impulse than chemical propulsion, resulting in increased fuel efficiency and reduced mass requirements for long-duration missions.
• Greater thrust: NTP systems can generate higher thrust levels than ion propulsion systems, enabling faster transit times for crewed missions.
• Continuous operation: Nuclear reactors can operate continuously for years, allowing spacecraft to maintain thrust for extended periods and achieve higher speeds over time. This makes nuclear propulsion particularly suitable for deep space missions, where the constant acceleration can reduce travel times significantly compared to conventional propulsion systems.
• Scalability: Nuclear propulsion systems can be scaled up to accommodate larger spacecraft and payloads, providing a viable option for ambitious missions that require significant power and propulsion capabilities.

Current Research and Development in Nuclear Propulsion Technology

There is ongoing research and development aimed at advancing nuclear propulsion technology and overcoming the challenges associated with its implementation:

• NASA’s Space Nuclear Propulsion Project : In collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, NASA is working on the development of nuclear propulsion systems for potential crewed missions to Mars. The project focuses on demonstrating the feasibility, safety, and performance of NTP systems, with the goal of enabling faster transit times and increased mission flexibility.
• DARPA’s DRACO Program : The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has initiated the DRACO (Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations) program, which aims to develop and demonstrate a high-assay, low-enriched uranium (HALEU) nuclear thermal propulsion system. The program seeks to enable rapid maneuverability for spacecraft in cislunar space, enhancing the United States’ capabilities in this strategic domain.
• ROSATOM’s Nuclear Electric Propulsion Project : Russia’s state atomic energy corporation, ROSATOM, is working on a nuclear electric propulsion system for deep space missions. The project aims to develop a megawatt-class space nuclear power plant that could power high-efficiency electric propulsion systems, potentially enabling faster and more efficient interplanetary missions.

Breakthrough Propulsion Technologies: A Glimpse into the Future

While current propulsion technologies have allowed us to explore our solar system, more advanced concepts are being studied to enable even faster and farther-reaching space travel. Some of these futuristic propulsion methods include antimatter propulsion and warp drive , which are still in the theoretical and experimental stages.

• Antimatter Propulsion: Antimatter propulsion systems rely on the immense energy released when matter and antimatter particles come into contact and annihilate each other. In theory, this could provide an extremely efficient propulsion method, with specific impulses far beyond those achievable with chemical, electric, or nuclear propulsion. However, producing, storing, and controlling antimatter remain significant challenges that need to be overcome before such a propulsion system could become a reality.
• Warp Drive: Inspired by the concept of faster-than-light travel popularized in science fiction, warp drive envisions a method of space travel that involves bending spacetime around a spacecraft, allowing it to effectively “jump” vast distances instantaneously. While the idea is based on the principles of general relativity, there are currently no known methods to create the required spacetime distortions, and the concept remains purely theoretical at this stage.

Theoretical Speeds Achievable with Breakthrough Technologies

The speeds achievable with breakthrough propulsion technologies, if realized, could be orders of magnitude higher than those possible with current methods:

• Antimatter Propulsion: The energy released during matter-antimatter annihilation is extremely high, potentially enabling speeds approaching a significant fraction of the speed of light. This would allow for interstellar travel within human timescales, making it possible to explore nearby star systems.
• Warp Drive: If a feasible method for creating and controlling spacetime distortions were discovered, warp drive could, in theory, enable faster-than-light travel, revolutionizing our understanding of space exploration and potentially opening up the entire galaxy for human exploration.

Current Research and Development Status

Although these advanced propulsion concepts hold tremendous promise, they are still in the early stages of research and development:

• Antimatter Propulsion: While some preliminary experiments have been conducted on producing and storing antimatter, the quantities produced are minuscule, and the technology for controlling and utilizing antimatter for propulsion is still in its infancy. Research in this area is ongoing, but practical antimatter propulsion systems remain a distant possibility.
• Warp Drive: Current research on warp drive is primarily theoretical, focusing on finding solutions to the complex problems associated with bending spacetime. Experimental verification of these ideas is still far beyond our current technological capabilities, and it is unclear if warp drive can ever become a practical means of propulsion.

While breakthrough propulsion technologies offer tantalizing glimpses into the future of space travel, significant scientific and engineering challenges must be overcome before they can be realized. In the meantime, the ongoing development of existing propulsion methods, such as ion, solar sail, and nuclear propulsion, will continue to push the boundaries of human space exploration.

In conclusion, the quest for faster and more efficient space travel remains an ongoing endeavor that continues to captivate scientists, engineers, and visionaries alike. Current propulsion technologies, such as chemical, ion, solar sail, and nuclear propulsion, have opened up our solar system to exploration and will continue to improve as research and development progress. Meanwhile, breakthrough propulsion concepts, like antimatter propulsion and warp drive, offer tantalizing glimpses into a future where interstellar travel could become a reality. As our understanding of the universe expands and our technological capabilities advance, the potential for faster and farther-reaching space travel will continue to push the boundaries of human exploration and our pursuit of new frontiers in the cosmos.

• Antimatter Propulsion
• Chemical Propulsion
• Ion Propulsion
• Nuclear Propulsion
• Solar Sails
• Space Travel

I am an avid reader of Science News & keep myself up to date about the latest happenings in the world of science. For the last 5 years, I have been managing the content curated by the top science news app "Science News Daily". In these 5 years, I have learned a lot & will be sharing my insights about the latest happenings in the science world.

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NASA's Parker Solar Probe smashes record for fastest man-made object

NASA's Parker Solar Probe has reached a record-breaking speed as it gets a gravitational assist from Venus to fall closer to the sun's scorching surface.

The NASA Parker Solar Probe has become the fastest human-made object ever recorded — again.

On Sept. 27, the probe reached a blistering 394,736 mph/ (635,266 km/h) as it swooped close to the sun's surface, thanks to a little gravity assistance from a close flyby of Venus on Aug. 21. . With this blistering approach to the sun, the probe smashed its own previous speed record of 364,660 mph (586,863 kmh), set in Nov. 2021. At the same time, the probe set a new distance record, swooping within just 4.51 million miles (7.26 million km) of the solar surface — closer than any spacecraft has ever orbited before, according to NASA .

The Venus flybys are a crucial element of the probe's attempt to study the sun's scorching surface. As the probe zooms by Venus, the planet absorbs some of Parker’s orbital energy, allowing it to get closer to the sun. The probe has one more flyby planned; its closest approach to the sun in late 2024 is predicted to be just 3.83 million miles (6.16 million km) from the surface. The probe will likely reach even greater speeds on its final trip around the sun, firmly solidifying its reputation as the fastest human-made object ever.

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The Parker Solar Space Probe, launched in Aug. 2018, is on a seven-year mission to understand the sun's corona, or the outermost layer of the sun's atmosphere. Understanding how heat moves through the corona, how plasma and magnetic fields change on the sun's surface , and how that powers phenomena such as solar wind will help scientists better predict space weather, according to NASA.

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Brandon is the space/physics editor at Live Science. His writing has appeared in The Washington Post, Reader's Digest, CBS.com, the Richard Dawkins Foundation website and other outlets. He holds a bachelor's degree in creative writing from the University of Arizona, with minors in journalism and media arts. He enjoys writing most about space, geoscience and the mysteries of the universe.

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A Vacuum Full of Infinite Energy

By Harnessing the Unlimited Vacuum Energy In Space, We Could Finally Reach Light Speed

Invisible vacuum energy is all around us. We could use it to power propulsion, enhance nanostructures, and build levitating devices.

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This landmark experiment, first devised by Casimir just after World War II—and only realized 25 years ago—paved the way for scientists to witness the manifestations of quantum theory in a real, practical way. Quantum fields and their vibrations power our modern-day understanding of physics, from subatomic interactions to the evolution of the entire universe. And what we learned, thanks to Casimir’s work, is that infinite energy permeates the vacuum of space. There are many ideas in the science fiction universe that propose using vacuum energy to power a starship or other advanced kind of propulsion, like a warp drive. While these ideas are still dreams, the fact remains that a simple experiment, devised in 1948, set fire to our imaginations and our understanding of the universe.

Casimir , a Dutch physicist, had spent his graduate years with his advisor, Niels Bohr, one of the godfathers of quantum physics , and had picked up a liking for this new, extraordinary theory of the cosmos. But as quantum theory evolved, it started to make extremely strange statements about the universe . The quantum world is weird , and its ultimate weirdness is normally invisible to us, operating at scales well below our normal human perception or experimentation. Casimir started to wonder how we might be able to test those ideas.

He went on to discover a clever way to measure the effects of ever-present infinite quantum fields merely using bits of metal held extremely close together. His work showed that quantum behavior can manifest in surprising ways that we can measure. It also showed that the strangeness of quantum behavior is real and can’t be ignored, and what quantum mechanics says about the workings of the universe —no matter how bizarre—must be believed.

Quantum Fields Are Otherworldly, But Very Real

One of the lessons of the quantum world is that particles , like electrons, photons, neutrinos, and whatnot, aren’t what they seem to be. Instead, each of the particles that we see in nature is actually just a piece of a much larger, grander entity. These grander entities are known as quantum fields, and the fields soak every bit of space and time—all throughout the universe—the same way that oil and vinegar soaks a piece of bread.

There is a quantum field for every kind of particle: one field for the electrons , one for the photons, and so on. These fields are invisible to us, but they make up the fundamental building blocks of existence. They are constantly vibrating and buzzing. When the fields vibrate with enough energy, particles appear. When the fields die down, the particles disappear. Another way to look at this is to say that what we call a “particle” is really a localized vibration of a quantum field. When two particles interact, it’s really just two pieces of quantum fields interacting with each other.

.css-2l0eat{font-family:UnitedSans,UnitedSans-roboto,UnitedSans-local,Helvetica,Arial,Sans-serif;font-size:1.625rem;line-height:1.2;margin:0rem;padding:0.9rem 1rem 1rem;}@media(max-width: 48rem){.css-2l0eat{font-size:1.75rem;line-height:1;}}@media(min-width: 48rem){.css-2l0eat{font-size:1.875rem;line-height:1;}}@media(min-width: 64rem){.css-2l0eat{font-size:2.25rem;line-height:1;}}.css-2l0eat b,.css-2l0eat strong{font-family:inherit;font-weight:bold;}.css-2l0eat em,.css-2l0eat i{font-style:italic;font-family:inherit;} There’s no such thing as a true vacuum; wherever you go, there are always vibrating quantum fields.

These quantum fields are always vibrating, even when those vibrations aren’t strong enough to produce a particle. If you take a box and empty out all of the stuff—all the electrons, all the photons, all the neutrinos, all the everything—the box is still filled with these quantum fields. Since those fields vibrate even in isolation, that means the box is filled with invisible vacuum energy, also known as zero-point energy—the energy of these fundamental vibrations.

In fact, you can calculate how many vibrations are in each of these quantum fields ... and the answer is infinity! There are small ones, medium ones, big ones, and gigantic ones, all flopping on top of each other continuously, as if spacetime itself was boiling at the subatomic level. This means that the vacuum of the universe really is made of something. There’s no such thing as a true vacuum; wherever you go, there are always vibrating quantum fields.

A Simple Experiment Involves Multiple Infinities

This is where Casimir’s experiment comes in: If you take two metal plates and stick them really, really close together, the quantum fields between those plates must behave in a certain way: the wavelengths of their vibrations must fit perfectly between the plates, just like the vibrations on a guitar string have to fit their wavelengths to the length of the string. In the quantum case, there are still an infinite number of vibrations between the plates, but—and this is crucial—there are not as many infinite vibrations between the plates as there are outside the plates.

How does this make sense? In mathematics, not all infinities are the same, and we’ve developed clever tools to be able to compare them. For example, consider one kind of infinity where you add successive numbers to each other. You start with 1, then add 2, then add 3, then add 4, and so on. If you keep that addition going forever, you’ll reach infinity. Now consider another kind of addition, this one involving powers of 10. You start with 101, then add to it 102, then 103, then 104, and keep going.

Again, if you keep this series going on forever, you’ll also reach infinity. But in a sense you’ll “get” to infinity faster. So by carefully subtracting these two sequences, you can get a measure of their difference even though they both go to infinity.

Using this clever bit of mathematics, we can subtract the two kinds of infinities—the ones between the metal plates and the ones outside—and arrive at a finite number. This means that there really are more quantum vibrations outside the two plates than there are inside the plates. This phenomenon leads to the conclusion that the quantum fields outside the plates push the two plates together, something called the Casimir effect in Hendrik’s honor.

The effect is incredibly small, roughly 10 -12 Newtons, and it requires the metal plates to be within a micrometer of each other. (One Newton is the force which accelerates an object of 1 kilogram by 1 meter per second squared.) So, even though Casimir could predict the existence of this quantum effect, it wasn’t until 1997 that we were finally able to measure it, thanks to the efforts of Yale physicist Steve Lamoreaux.

🦎 Quantum Physics In Action Perhaps most strangely, the creature with the deepest connection to the fundamental quantum nature of the universe is the gecko. Geckos have the ability to walk on walls, and even upside-down on ceilings. To accomplish this feat, a gecko’s limbs are covered in countless, microscopic hair-like fibers. These fibers get close enough to the molecules of the surface it wants to climb on for the Casimir effect to take action. It creates an attractive force between the hair and the surface. Each individual hair provides only an extremely tiny amount of force, but all the hairs combined are enough to support the gecko.

In this experimental setup, which can fit on a kitchen countertop, the plates don’t magically pull themselves together. Instead it’s the infinite vibrating quantum fields of spacetime pushing them together from the outside.

We don’t normally see or sense or experience the Casimir effect. But when we want to design micro- and nano-scale machines , we have to account for these additional forces. For example, researchers have designed micro-scale sensors that can monitor the flow of chemicals on a molecule-by-molecule basis, but the Casimir effect can disrupt the operations of this sensor if we didn’t know about it.

Scientists Are Exploring the Potential of Vacuum Energy

For several years, researchers have been investigating the possibility that we really can extract vacuum energy and use it for energy. A 2002 patent was awarded for a device that captures the electric charge from the Casimir experimental setup’s two metal plates, charging a storage battery. The device can be used as a generator. “To continuously generate power a plurality of metal plates are fixed around a core and rotated like a gyrocompass,” according to the patent.

💫 Scientists Believe Light Speed Travel Is Possible. Here’s How.

The U.S. Defense Department’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) gave researchers $10 million in 2009 to pursue a better understanding of the Casimir force. Though progress in actually using vacuum energy continues to be incremental, this line of energy research could give rise to innovations in nanotechnology, such as building a device capable of levitation, researchers said at the time.

At the University of Colorado in Boulder, Garret Moddel ’s research group has developed devices that produce power “that appears to result from zero-point energy quantum fluctuations,” according to the group’s website . Their device essentially recreates Casimir’s experiment, generating an electrical current between the two metal layers that researchers could measure, despite applying no electrical voltage.

As for Casimir himself, who was immersed in a quantum revolution unfolding at Leiden University, he had a tendency to downplay the importance of his own work. In his autobiography, Haphazard Reality , Casimir said, “The story of my own life is of no particular interest.” And his monumental 1948 paper designing his experiment ends with the simple statement, “Although the effect is small, an experimental confirmation seems not infeasable and might be of a certain interest.”

In fact, his initial insight did not make a big splash on the scientific community, nor were there glowing popular press accounts of his experiment. Part of the reason was Casimir’s own modesty, and another is that he soon left academic research to pursue a career in industry. But despite these humble beginnings, his work cannot be understated.

Today, we continue to refine Casimir’s original experimental setup, searching for any cracks in our theories, and we use it as a foundation to explore ever more deeply the fundamental nature of the cosmos.

Paul M. Sutter is a science educator and a theoretical cosmologist at the Institute for Advanced Computational Science at Stony Brook University and the author of How to Die in Space: A Journey Through Dangerous Astrophysical Phenomena and Your Place in the Universe: Understanding Our Big, Messy Existence. Sutter is also the host of various science programs, and he’s on social media. Check out his Ask a Spaceman podcast and his YouTube page .

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The Moon needs its own time zone, says Nasa

Scientists want to create Coordinated Lunar Time as it moves around 58.7 microseconds faster than on Earth

Gaze up at the Moon at night and it may surprise you to learn that time on the lunar surface is moving ever so slightly faster than on Earth.

The effect, caused because the satellite’s gravity does not bend spacetime as much as on Earth , is barely noticeable even for astronauts on the surface.

However, the US government is so concerned about the potential impact to future space missions that it has asked Nasa to establish an entirely new time standard for the Moon.

Space missions are based on Earth time, but time on the Moon moves around 58.7 microseconds faster each day, an anomaly that could end up causing major glitches in navigation systems and would require constant corrections.

To counter the problem, Nasa wants to establish Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC), which orbiting satellites and lunar ground technology would be synched to, instead of running on Earth time.

The head of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy has instructed the space agency to work with the US government to devise a plan by the end of 2026.

“The same clock that we have on Earth would move at a different rate on the Moon,” Kevin Coggins, Nasa’s space communications and navigation chief, told Reuters.

“Imagine if the world wasn’t syncing their clocks to the same time – how disruptive that might be and how challenging everyday things become.

“An atomic clock on the Moon would tick at a different rate to a clock on Earth. It makes sense that when you go to another body, like the Moon or Mars, that each one gets its own heartbeat.”

On Earth, most clocks and time zones are based on Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC/GMT, an internationally recognised standard that relies on a vast global network of atomic clocks placed in different locations around the world.

Accurate navigation depends on rigorous timekeeping because a satnav calculates position by triangulating a speed of light signal from at least three satellites. If the timing is off even a little, positioning can be vastly off.

Up until now, Moon missions have operated on Earth time, with deep space antennas used to keep onboard chronometers synchronised with terrestrial time.

However, experts say that is unsustainable as humans spend more time on the Moon and beyond as relativity starts to have a bigger impact .

Einstein’s theory of general relativity predicts that where gravity is stronger, time passes more slowly, a process known as time dilation.

Timekeeping discrepancies

On Earth, gravity is stronger closer to the core, with even mountaineers or airline passengers experiencing slightly faster time.

Clocks on GPS satellites run ahead by about 0.000038 seconds per day, an issue that must be continuously taken into account.

These quirks of relativity make it tricky to synchronise clocks between the Moon and Earth because an observer on the Moon would see time as moving more slowly back home.

Nasa is planning to send astronauts back to the lunar surface in 2026 . It wants to set up a Moon base as well as a new lunar space station with the European Space Agency (Esa).

Esa is also working on an orbiting satellite communications system called Moonlight which would allow lunar navigation, fast file transfer and even video calls.

But without a Moon time standard, all the technology on the lunar surface would require constant adjustments to keep up.

Discrepancies in timekeeping could lead to errors in mapping making navigation, operations and spacecraft docking difficult and putting astronauts at risk.

However, deciding what LTC will be is likely to be tricky because time on the surface of the Moon runs more slowly than in orbit. It is likely that atomic clocks will eventually be placed on the lunar surface to accurately measure Moon time.

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How Fast Can They Go? 15 Animals with Incredible Speed

Posted: March 4, 2024 | Last updated: March 4, 2024

In a world where speed reigns supreme, many creatures showcase unparalleled swiftness. From the skies to the ocean’s depths, the vast plains to the rugged terrains, these speedsters captivate us with lightning-fast movements. Join us as we take a deep dive into the realm of nature’s 15 fastest beings.

1. Peregrine Falcon: The Sky’s Swiftest Hunter

With their awe-inspiring aerial acrobatics, Peregrine Falcons claim the title of the fastest animal on Earth. These majestic birds show their unparalleled velocity during daring dives, reaching over 240 miles per hour as they plummet from the heavens.

2. Cheetah: Sprinting Marvel of the Savannah

In the vast plains of Africa, the Cheetah reigns supreme as the fastest land mammal, capable of breathtaking bursts of acceleration that leave observers in awe. With its sleek build and powerful muscles, the Cheetah accelerates from 0 to 60 miles per hour in seconds, making it a formidable predator in the savannah.

3. Black Marlin and Sailfish: Oceanic Speedsters

Speed becomes paramount for survival in the ocean, and the Black Marlin and Sailfish stand out as adept contenders. The members of the marlin family showcase unparalleled deftness, boasting bursts of momentum that surpass 60 miles per hour.

4. Swift: The Speedy Bird of the Air

Swifts are masters of the skies, renowned for their incredible aerial agility and velocity. Capable of reaching speeds of up to 69 miles per hour, these small, slender birds are built for flight, with long, narrow wings that allow them to maneuver effortlessly through the air.

5. Pronghorn: The Speedster of the American Plains

Native to North America, the Pronghorn earns acclaim for its extraordinary speed and stamina. They are elegant mammals resembling antelopes that can achieve velocities of up to 60 miles per hour, establishing themselves as the swiftest land creatures in the Western Hemisphere.

6. Mexican Free-Tailed Bat: The Speedy Night Flyer

In the realm of nocturnal creatures, few can match the skill and speed of the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana). Capable of reaching speeds of up to 99 miles per hour (160 kilometers per hour), these bats are among the fastest flyers in the world.

7. Sailfish: The Ocean’s Fastest Fish

As a result of their incredible speed and agility in the ocean, sailfish emerge as formidable predators of the deep. These sleek and streamlined creatures can achieve a velocity of 68 miles per hour, securing their title as the fastest fish in the ocean.

8. Brazilian Free-Tailed Bat: The Speedy Nocturnal Hunter

Demonstrating mastery over aerial dexterity and acceleration, the Brazilian Free-Tailed Bat swiftly navigates the night sky in search of insects. Well known for their rapid and acrobatic flight maneuvers, bats exhibit remarkable precision in capturing flying prey.

9. Anna’s Hummingbird: The Tiny Speedster

Measuring merely 3 to 4 inches in length and weighing less than a nickel, Anna’s Hummingbird boasts an iridescent emerald-green plumage that shimmers brilliantly in the sunlight.  With wings that beat up to 80 times per second, it can hover effortlessly in mid-air, darting back and forth with tremendous precision.

10. Gyrfalcon: The Arctic Speedster

With a wingspan that can exceed four feet and a weight that ranges from two to four pounds, the Gyrfalcon cuts a striking figure against the icy backdrop of its Arctic habitat. it can reach velocities of up to 130 miles per hour (209 kilometers per hour) in pursuit of prey, making it one of the fastest birds in level flight.

11. Greyhound: The Speedy Canine

Originating from ancient Egypt, where they were revered as symbols of nobility and royalty,  Greyhounds often referred to as the “Speedy Canine" are built for speed, capable of reaching staggering velocities of up to 45 miles per hour (72 kilometers per hour) in full sprint.

12. African Wild Dog: The Speedy Pack Hunter

What truly sets the African Wild Dog apart is its remarkable ability to hunt cooperatively in packs, employing sophisticated strategies to pursue and capture prey. Working together with amazing coordination and communication, these dogs can reach speeds of up to 37 miles per hour (60 kilometers per hour) in short bursts.

13. Kangaroo: The Speedy Hopper

Acknowledged for its swiftness and agility, the Kangaroo is a marsupial recognized as one of the fastest hopping animals on Earth. These iconic Australian creatures can reach up to 44 miles per hour, utilizing their powerful hind legs to prop themselves forward in rapid, bounding leaps.

14. Blue Wildebeest: The Speedy Migrator

Blue Wildebeests are famous for their speed and endurance, capable of reaching speeds of up to 50 miles per hour (80 kilometers per hour) when galloping across the plains. With their muscular build, shaggy mane, and distinctive curved horns, these majestic animals exhibit impressive agility and strength as they navigate their vast habitats.

15. Jackrabbit: The Speedy Hare of the Desert

A hare noted for its exceptional speed and dexterity, the Jackrabbit is one of the fastest animals in the desert. Iconic North American mammals can reach up to 40 miles per hour, using their powerful hind legs to prop themselves forward in rapid, bounding leaps.

The post How Fast Can They Go? 15 Animals with Incredible Speed appeared first on Housely .

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A cosmic ‘speed camera’ just revealed the staggering speed of neutron star jets in a world first

Professor, Curtin University

Disclosure statement

James Miller-Jones receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Western Australian State Government.

Curtin University provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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How fast can a neutron star drive powerful jets into space? The answer, it turns out, is about one-third the speed of light, as our team has just revealed in a new study published in Nature.

Energetic cosmic beams known as jets are seen throughout our universe. They are launched when material – mainly dust and gas – falls in towards any dense central object, such as a neutron star (an extremely dense remnant of a once-massive star) or a black hole .

The jets carry away some of the gravitational energy released by the infalling gas, recycling it back into the surroundings on far larger scales.

The most powerful jets in the universe come from the biggest black holes at the centres of galaxies. The energy output of these jets can affect the evolution of an entire galaxy, or even a galaxy cluster. This makes jets a critical, yet intriguing, component of our universe.

Although jets are common, we still don’t fully understand how they are launched. Measuring the jets from a neutron star has now given us valuable information.

Read more: The brightest object in the universe is a black hole that eats a star a day

Jets from stellar corpses

Jets from black holes tend to be bright, and have been well studied. However, the jets from neutron stars are typically much fainter, and much less is known about them.

This presents a problem, since we can learn a lot by comparing the jets launched by different celestial objects. Neutron stars are extremely dense stellar corpses – cosmic cinders the size of a city, yet containing the mass of a star. We can think of them as enormous atomic nuclei, each about 20 kilometres across.

In contrast to black holes, neutron stars have both a solid surface and a magnetic field, and gas falling onto them releases less gravitational energy. All of these properties will have an effect on how their jets are launched, making studies of neutron star jets particularly valuable.

One key clue to how jets are launched comes from their speeds. If we can determine how jet speeds vary with the mass or spin of the neutron star, that would provide a powerful test of theoretical predictions. But it is extremely challenging to measure jet speeds accurately enough for such a test.

Read more: Unexpected find from a neutron star forces a rethink on radio jets

A cosmic speed camera

When we measure speeds on Earth, we time an object between two points. This could be a 100-metre sprinter running down the track, or a point-to-point speed camera tracking a car.

Our team, led by Thomas Russell from the Italian National Institute of Astrophysics in Palermo, conducted a new experiment to do this for neutron star jets.

What has made this measurement so difficult in the past is that jets are steady flows. This means there is no single starting point for our timer. But we were able to identify a short-lived signal at X-ray wavelengths that we could use as our “starting gun”.

Being so dense, neutron stars can “steal” matter from a nearby orbiting companion star. While some of that gas is launched outwards as jets, most of it ends up falling onto the neutron star. As the material piles up, it gets hotter and denser.

When enough material has built up, it triggers a thermonuclear explosion. A runaway nuclear fusion reaction occurs and rapidly spreads to engulf the entire star. The fusion lasts for a few seconds to minutes, causing a short-lived burst of X-rays .

One step closer to solving a mystery

We thought this thermonuclear explosion would disrupt the neutron star’s jets. So, we used CSIRO’s Australia Telescope Compact Array to stare at the jets for three days at radio wavelengths to try and catch the disruption. At the same time, we used the European Space Agency’s Integral telescope to look at the X-rays from the system.

To our surprise, we found the jets got brighter after every pulse of X-rays. Instead of disrupting the jets, the thermonuclear explosions seemed to power them up. And this pattern was repeated ten times in one neutron star system, and then again in a second system.

We can explain this surprising result if the X-ray pulse causes gas swirling around the neutron star to fall inwards more quickly. This, in turn, provides more energy and material to divert into the jets.

Most importantly, however, we can use the X-ray burst to indicate the launch time of the jets. We timed how long they took to move outwards to where they became visible at two different radio wavelengths. These start and finish points provided us with our cosmic speed camera.

Interestingly, the jet speed we measured was close to the “escape speed” from a neutron star. On Earth, this escape speed is 11.2 kilometres per second – what rockets need to achieve to break free of Earth’s gravity. For a neutron star, that value is around half the speed of light.

Our work has introduced a new technique for measuring neutron star jet speeds. Our next steps will be to see how the jet speed changes for neutron stars with different masses and rotation rates. That will allow us to directly test theoretical models, taking us one step closer to figuring out how such powerful cosmic jets are launched.

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Maps of the April 2024 Total Solar Eclipse

By Jonathan Corum

On April 8, the moon will slip between the Earth and the sun, casting a shadow across a swath of North America: a total solar eclipse.

By cosmic coincidence, the moon and the sun appear roughly the same size in the sky. When the moon blocks the glare of the sun, the sun’s outer atmosphere, or corona, will be briefly visible.

Below are several maps of the eclipse’s path as well as images of what you might experience during the event.

Where Can I See the Total Eclipse?

The eclipse will begin at sunrise over the Pacific Ocean, then cut through Mexico and cross the United States from Texas to Maine. Most of North America will see a partial eclipse, but viewers within the deepest shadow — a band sliding from Mazatlán, Mexico, to the Newfoundland coast near Gander, Canada — will experience a total solar eclipse.

Percentage of

the sun obscured

during the eclipse

Indianapolis

Little Rock

San Antonio

Viewers inside the path of the total eclipse may notice a drop in temperature , a lull or shift in the wind , the appearance of bright planets in the sky, and the quieting of birds and other wildlife.

Many cities lie inside the path of the total eclipse, as shown below, the width of which varies from 108 miles to 122 miles.

5:13 p.m. NDT

20% partial eclipse

NEWFOUNDLAND

SASKATCHEWAN

Fredericton

4:33 p.m. ADT

3:26 p.m. EDT

3:20 p.m. EDT

Minneapolis

3:18 p.m. EDT

3:13 p.m. EDT

San Francisco

90% partial eclipse

3:05 p.m. EDT

Los Angeles

1:51 p.m. CDT

1:40 p.m. CDT

1:33 p.m. CDT

12:16 p.m. CST

12:12 p.m. CST

11:07 a.m. MST

Mexico City

EL SALVADOR

12:23 p.m. CST

1:36 p.m. CDT

3:09 p.m. EDT

3:27 p.m. EDT

Explore our interactive cloud outlook for eclipse viewing times and average cloud data at your location.

What Will I See?

A composite image of the 2017 solar eclipse over Madras, Ore.

Aubrey Gemignani/NASA

If the sky is clear, viewers in the path of the total eclipse should see a “diamond ring” effect a few seconds before and after the total eclipse, as the edge of the sun slips in and out of view.

The “diamond ring” effect during the 2017 solar eclipse.

Rami Daud/NASA, Alcyon Technical Services

The sun’s outer atmosphere, or corona, is normally hidden by the sun’s glare. These tendrils and sheets of gas, heated to a million degrees Fahrenheit or more, are in constant motion and shaped by the sun’s swirling magnetic field.

The sun’s corona during the 2017 solar eclipse.

The sun is relatively active this year and is nearing the expected peak of its 11-year solar cycle . Researchers at Predictive Science are using data about the sun’s magnetic field to predict and model a dramatic corona for the April eclipse.

A prediction of how the sun’s corona might appear during the April 8 total eclipse.

Predictive Science

What Colors Should I Wear?

As the sky darkens, light-sensitive cells in human eyes become more sensitive to blue and green hues than to reds and oranges. This shift in color perception is known as the Purkinje effect , after a 19th-century Czech scientist, and is typically seen at twilight.

Watching the 2017 total eclipse at Southern Illinois University.

Andrea Morales for The New York Times

To take advantage of the Purkinje effect, wear green clothes or a contrasting combination of greens and reds. Blue-green colors (shorter wavelengths) will appear brighter, while red colors (longer wavelengths) will appear to recede into the darkness.

What If I Miss It?

The next two total solar eclipses in the United States won’t occur until 2044 and 2045 . But eclipse chasers might catch one in 2026 in Greenland, Iceland and Spain; 2027 along the coast of Northern Africa; 2028 in Australia and New Zealand; or 2030 across Southern Africa and Australia.

A Total Solar Eclipse Is Coming. Here’s What You Need to Know.

These are answers to common questions about the April 8 eclipse, and we’re offering you a place to pose more of them.

By Katrina Miller

What’s the Cloud Forecast for Eclipse Day? See if the Weather Is on Your Side.

April 8 could be your best opportunity to see a total solar eclipse for decades. But if clouds fill the sky, you may miss the spectacle.

By Josh Katz, K.K. Rebecca Lai and William B. Davis

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Our Coverage of the Total Solar Eclipse

Hearing the Eclipse:  A device called LightSound is being distributed to help the blind and visually impaired experience what they can’t see .

Maine Brac es Itself :  Businesses and planning committees are eager for visitors, but some in remote Aroostook County are not sure how they feel  about lying smack in the path of totality.

A Dark Day for Buffalo:  When the sky above Buffalo briefly goes dark  on the afternoon of April 8, the city will transcend its dreary place in the public consciousness — measured as it so often is by snowstorms — if only for about three minutes. The city can’t wait.

Under the Moon’s Shadow:  The late Jay Pasachoff, who spent a lifetime chasing eclipses , inspired generations of students to become astronomers by dragging them to the ends of the Earth for a few precarious moments of ecstasy.

A Rare Return:  It is rare for a total solar eclipse to hit the same place twice — once every 366 years on average. People in certain areas will encounter April 8’s eclipse  about seven years after they were near the middle of the path of the “Great American Eclipse.”

A Small City’s Big Plans:  Let the big cities have their eclipse mega-events. In Plattsburgh, N.Y., success looks different  for everyone stopping to look up.

 No Power Outages:  When the sky darkens during the eclipse, electricity production in some parts of the country will drop so sharply that it could theoretically leave tens of millions of homes in the dark. In practice, hardly anyone will notice  a sudden loss of energy.

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When will solar eclipse reach your town? These maps show path's timing, how long it lasts.

Hundreds of cities in 13 u.s. states fall directly on the april 8 eclipse's path of totality as the moon blocks the sun's disc and ushers in darkness. these interactive maps offer a closer look..

Come Monday, millions of Americans from Texas to Maine will stop what they're doing to step outside and spend a few minutes gazing skyward .

Few celestial events have the power to capture our collective attention the way this upcoming total solar eclipse has managed to do. And for those making time to witness it, two questions are bound to be on their mind : Will totality reach my area and if so, how long will the resulting darkness last?

Most people across the country are bound to experience the eclipse in some form, but only 13 states fall directly on the path of totality, where the moon will appear large enough to shield all but the sun's outermost layer, the corona.

As you make your eclipse-viewing plans, these interactive maps should help you chart the time and duration for when totality will occur in cities along the path.

Solar eclipse experiment: Here's why NASA is launching 3 sounding rockets into space during the total solar eclipse

Total solar eclipse path of totality map

The 115-mile-wide path of totality will pass from southwest to northeast over portions of Mexico the United States and Canada.

Mexico's Pacific coast will be the first location in continental North America to experience totality, which will occur at about 11:07 a.m. PDT,  according to NASA .

As the moon's shadow travels northeast, totality in the U.S. will begin at 1:27 p.m. CDT in Eagle Pass, Texas. From there, the path will cut diagonally across the country before ending around 3:35 p.m. EDT in Lee, Maine.

Remember: If you plan to witness the eclipse, proper eyewear is a must until the eclipse reaches totality, then it can be viewed with the naked eye.

Here's a map of some of the larger cities in each of the 13 states on the path to show how the duration of totality will vary:

Cities, states on the path of totality

All told, nearly 500 cities in 13 U.S. states are located on the eclipse's path of totality. Here are some of the major cities in each of the 13 states:

• Dallas and San Antonio, Texas
• Idabel, Oklahoma
• Poplar Bluff, Missouri
• Little Rock, Arkansas
• Paducah, Kentucky
• Indianapolis and Evansville, Indiana
• Carbondale, Illinois
• Cleveland and Toledo, Ohio
• Buffalo, Rochester and Syracuse, New York
• Burlington, Vermont
• Lancaster, New Hampshire
• Caribou, Maine
• Erie, Pennsylvania

This interactive map provides a closer look at cities along the path, when totality will arrive there and how long totality will last:

Eclipse watch parties, festivals

Such a rare event is sure to attract skygazing tourists unlucky enough to live outside the path of totality. Fortunately, many cities that will experience the total eclipse are planning plenty of festivities for tourists and locals alike.

This map , courtesy of Kristian Campana at festivalguidesandreviews.com , includes locations of watch parties, music festivals and more all tied to the eclipse's arrival:

2024 total solar eclipse interactive map with zip code search

Perhaps the easiest way to see how the eclipse will impact your city or town, is to put your zip code into USA TODAY's interactive eclipse map .

Eric Lagatta covers breaking and trending news for USA TODAY. Reach him at [email protected]